外文译文范文

以下是小编整理的外文译文范文，本文共13篇，欢迎阅读分享，希望对大家有帮助。本文原稿由网友“across”提供。

篇1：外文参考文献格式

【引用格式与参考文献】

1. 在论文中的引用采取插入作者、年份和页数方式，如“Doe (, p.10) reported that …” or “This在论文中的引用采取作者和年份插入方式，如”Doe (2001, p.10) reported that …“ or ”This problem has been studied previously (Smith, 1958, pp.20-25)。文中插入的引用应该与文末参考文献相对应。

举例：Frankly speaking, it is just a simulating one made by the government, or a fake competition, directly speaking. (Gao, , p.220).

2. 在文末参考文献中，姓前名后，姓与名之间以逗号分隔;如有两个作者，以and连接;如有三个或三个以上作者，前面的作者以逗号分隔，最后一个作者以and连接。

3. 参考文献中各项目以“点”分隔，最后以“点”结束。

4. 文末参考文献请按照以下格式：

a). 如果文献是图书，书名使用斜体。如果是文献是书中的一篇文章，请参考举例(2)

举例: (1)Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style. (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan, (Chapter 4).

(2) Mettam, G. R., & Adams, L. B. (1994). How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In B. S. Jones, & R. Z. Smith (Eds.), Introduction to the electronic age. New York: E-Publishing Inc. pp. 281-304

b). 如果文献是期刊或报刊中的文章，文章名加引号，期刊报刊名不需要加引号，

期刊举例：Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton R. A. . The art of writing a scientific article. Journal of Scientific Communications, 163, 51-59

报纸举例： Smith, Joe. (). 3G Economy, Whose Economy: Report of 3G Century. Report of 21st Century Economy. 20 January 2005.

c). 如果文献是网页，请尽量包括作者，年份，题目，网址和检索的时间。

举例：Smith, Joe. (). One of Volvo's core values. [Online] Available: www.volvo.com/environment/ (July 7, 1999)

【常见问题和错误】

1. 在英文论文中，一定不要出现汉字和中文字符。如果出现，会在英文排版系统中出现乱码。

2. 一些标点中文和英文看上去相似，但在系统中却不一样，请注意不要在中文输入状态下输入这个标点：逗号，引号，冒号，句号，横杠，顿号，括号。

3. 为防止出现中文字符，英文论文完成后，请使用Word中“字数统计”功能查询，“中文字符朝鲜语单词”一项应该为“0”，如果不为0，表示英文翻译中存在中文字符，请检查修改。

4.工作单位的翻译首先到单位的网站查询英文名，当然所在单位若有自己的通用译法，按照通用的即可。一定要保证发表出来的单位译法科研处认可啊。

解释：APA 格式 ，所谓APA 是American Psychological Association 的缩写，是学社会科学的人在写作学术论文必须要遵守的格式要求。

【英文参考文献举例】

1.期刊类

【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号)起止页码.

【举例】

[1] 周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星.对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2003(6):107-109.

[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,(1):46-52.

[3] Heider, E.R.& D.C.Oliver. The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 67.

2.专著类

【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码.

【举例】

[4] 刘国钧,王连成.图书馆史研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1979:15-18,31.

[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.

3.报纸类

【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次).

【举例】

[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，-12-27(3).

[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).

4.论文集

【格式】[序号]作者.篇名 [C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.

【举例】

[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.

[9] Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp.271-313.

[10] Almarza, G.G. Student foreign language teacher's knowledge growth [A]. In D.Freeman and J.C.Richards (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. . pp.50-78.

5.学位论文

【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码.

【举例】

[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.

6.研究报告

【格式】[序号]作者. 篇名[R].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码.

【举例】

[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, :9-10.

7.专利

【格式】[序号]专利所有者.题名[P].国别:专利号,发布日期.

【举例】

[13] 姜锡洲.一种温热外敷药制备方案[P].中国专利:881056073, 1989 07 26.

8.标准

【格式】[序号]标准编号,标准名称[S].

【举例】

[14] GB/T 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S].

9.条例

【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期

【举例】

[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991-06-05

10.电子文献

【格式】[序号]主要责任者.电子文献题名.电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识].或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期.

【举例】

[16] 王明亮.关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展[EB/OL]. 1998 08 16/1998 10 04.

[17] 万锦.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983 1993).英文版 [DB/CD]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1996.

11.各种未定义类型的文献

【格式】[序号] 主要责任者.文献题名[Z].出版地:出版者, 出版年.

特别说明：凡出现在“参考文献”项中的标点符号都失去了其原有意义，且其中所有标点必须是半角,如果你的输入法中有半角/全解转换,则换到半角状态就可以了,如果你的输入法中没有这一转换功能,直接关闭中文输入法,在英文输入状态下输入即可.

其实，很多输入法(如目前比较流行的搜狐输入法)都提供了四种组合：

(1)中文标点+ 全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(而这时，我没有找到哪个键可以输入 / 符号)也就是说，这些符号是一定不能出现在“参考文献”中的;

(2)中文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(这时，我还是没有找到哪个键可以输入 / 符号)也就是说，这些符号也不能出现在“参考文献”中的;

上面列出的符号，中间没有任何的空格，你能看出它们有什么区别吗?我看只是-的宽度有一点点不同，其它都一样

(3)英文标点+全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，.：[1]-/

(4)英文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的,.:[1]-/

从这两项可以明显的看出，半角和全角其实最大的差别是所占的宽度不一样，这一点对于数字来说最为明显，而英文标点明显要比中文标点细小很多(也许因为英文中，标点的功能没有中文那么复杂，就是说英文中标点符号的能力没有中文那么强大)

所以，很多人在写“参考文献” 时，总是觉得用英文标点+半角很不清楚，间距也太小，其实这点完全不用担心如果你觉得真的太小不好看，就用英文标点+全角吧而在[1] 之后，一般也都有一个空格。

对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：

①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓,名字的首字母. 如： Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, M.R.，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norris, F. & I.Gordon.

②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.

1.最新外文参考文献的格式

2.外文参考文献格式标准

3.外文期刊参考文献格式

4.外文参考文献标准格式

5.本科毕业论文外文参考文献标准格式

6.毕业论文外文参考文献范例

7.参考文献格式

8.论文参考文献格式

9.参考文献的规范格式

10.丛书参考文献格式

篇2：外文翻译

广东工业大学

华立学院

本科毕业设计（论文）

外文参考文献译文及原文

系 部 会计学部

专 业 会计学

年 级 级

班级名称

学 号

学生姓名

指导教师

年 5 月

目 录

1 外文文献译文 .......................................................... 1

2 外文文献原文 .......................................................... 9

2 内部环境

【本章摘要】内部环境包含组织的基调，它影响组织中人员的风险意识，是企业风险管理所有其他构成要素的基础，为其他要素提供约束和结构。内部环境因素包括主体的风险管理理念、它的风险容量、董事会的监督、主体中人员的诚信、道德价值观和胜任能力，以及管理当局分配权力和职责、组织和开发其员工的方式。

内部环境是企业风险管理所有其他构成要素的基础，为其他要素提供约束和结构。它影响着战略和目标如何制订、经营活动如何组织以及如何识别、评估风险并采取行动。它还影响着控制活动、信息与沟通体系和监控措施的设计与运行。

内部环境受到主体的历史和文化的影响。它包含许多要素，包括主体的道德价值观、员工的胜任能力和开发、管理当局管理风险的理念以及如何分配权力和职责。董事会是内部环境的一个关键部分，它对其他的内部环境要素有重大的影响。

尽管所有要素都很重要，但是对每个要素的强调程度会因主体而异。举例来说，一家员工较少、专注化经营的公司的首席执行官可能就不会制订正式的职责划分和具体的经营政策。但是，这家公司也会有为企业风险管理提供合适基础的内部环境。

风险管理理念

一个主体的风险管理理念是一整套共同的信念和态度，它决定着该主体在做任何事情――从战略制订和执行到日常的活动――时如何考虑风险。风险管理理念反映了主体的价值观，影响它的文化和经营风格，并且决定如何应用企业风险管理的构成要素，包括如何识别风险，承担哪些风险，以及如何管理这些风险。

成功地承担了重大风险的公司对企业风险管理的看法，似乎不同于由于在危险的地区创业而面临过严酷的经济或管制后果的公司。尽管有些主体会为了满足外部利益相关者――例如母公司或监管者的需要，而努力实现有效的企业风险管理，但是更常见的是因为管理当局认识到有效的风险管理有助于主体创造和保持价值。

当风险管理理念被很好地确立和理解、并且为员工所信奉时，主体就能有效地识别和管理风险。否则，企业风险管理在各个业务单元、职能机构或部门中的应用就可能会出现不可接受的不平衡状态。但是即使一个主体的理念被很好地确

立，在它的各个单元之间仍然会存在文化上的差别，从而导致风险管理应用方面的差异。一些单元的管理者可能准备承担更大的风险，而其他的则更为保守。例如，一个有闯劲的销售职能机构可能会集中关注实现销售，而没有仔细注意对法规的遵循问题，而缔约单元的人员主要集中关注确保符合所有的相关内部和外部政策与法规。孤立地看，这些不同的次级文化都能对主体产生负面影响。但是通过很好的合作，这些单元能够恰当地反映主体的风险管理理念。

企业的风险管理理念实质上反映在管理当局在经营该主体的过程中所做的每一件事情上。它可以从政策表述、口头和书面的沟通以及决策中反映出来。无论管理当局是强调书面的政策、行为准则、业绩指标和例外报告，还是更为非正式地大量通过与关键的管理者面对面的接触来进行运营，至关重要的是管理当局不仅要通过口头、而且还要通过日常的行动来强化这种理念。

风险容量

风险容量是一个主体在追求价值的过程中所愿意承担的广泛意义上的风险的数量。它反映了企业的风险管理理念，进而影响了主体的文化和经营风格。

风险容量在战略制订的过程中加以考虑，来自一项战略的期望报酬应该与主体的风险容量相协调。不同的战略会使主体面临不同程度的风险，应用于战略制订过程的企业风险管理帮助管理当局选择一个与主体的风险容量相一致的战略。

主体运用类似高、适中或低等类别，从质的角度考虑风险容量，或者运用数量化的方法，来反映和平衡增长、报酬和风险方面的目标。

董事会

一个主体的董事会是内部环境的关键部分，它对其要素有着重大影响。董事会对于管理当局的独立性、其成员的经验和才干、对活动参与和审察的程度，以及其行为的适当性都起着重要的作用。其他因素包括提出有关战略、计划和业绩方面的疑难问题和与管理当局进行商讨的程度，以及董事会或审计委员会与内部和外部审计师的交流。

一个积极的和高度参与型的董事会、托管委员会（board of trustees）或类似的机构，应该具有适当程度的管理、技术和其他专长，以及履行监督职责所需要

的思维方式。这对于一个有效的企业风险管理环境至关重要。而且，由于董事会必须准备去质疑和仔细审查管理当局的活动，提出不同的观点，并针对不当行为采取行动，因此董事会必须包含外部董事。

高层管理当局的成员可能带来他们对公司的深入了解，从而成为有效的董事会成员。但是必须有足够数量的独立外部董事，他们不但要提供合理的建议、咨询和指导，而且还要对管理当局形成必要的牵制和制衡。要想使内部环境有效，董事会中的独立外部董事必须至少占多数。

有效的董事会能确保管理当局保持有效的风险管理。尽管一家企业在过去可能没有遭受损失、没有暴露出明显的重大风险，董事会也不能天真地认定带有严重负面后果的事项“在这里不会发生”。应该认识到，尽管一家公司可能有合理的战略、胜任的员工、合理的经营流程和可靠的技术，但是它和所有的主体一样，对于风险而言都很脆弱，因此也需要有效运行的风险管理。

诚信与道德价值观

主体的战略和目标以及它们得以推行的方式建立在偏好、价值判断和管理风格的基础之上。管理当局的诚信和对道德价值观的要求影响这些转化为行为准则的偏好和判断。因为一个主体的良好声誉是如此有价值，所以行为的准则应该不仅仅只是遵循法律。经营良好的企业的管理者越来越接受这样的观点，那就是道德是值得的，道德行为就是良好的经营。

管理当局的诚信是一个主体活动的所有方面的道德行为的先决条件。企业风险管理的有效性不可能脱离那些创造、管理和监督主体活动的人的诚信和道德价值观。诚信和道德价值观是一个主体内部环境的关键要素，它影响着企业风险管理其他构成要素的设计、管理和监控。

树立道德价值观通常很困难，因为需要考虑多个方面的利益。管理当局的价值观必须平衡企业、员工、供应商、客户、竞争者和公众的利益。平衡这些利益可能是复杂而令人沮丧的，因为利益通常是互相矛盾的。举例来说，提供一种必需的产品（石油、木材或食品）可能会导致环境方面的关切。

道德行为和管理当局的诚信是公司文化的副产品，公司文化包含道德和行为准则以及它们的沟通和强化方式。正式的政策指明了董事会和管理当局希望发生

的情况。公司文化决定着实际发生的情况，以及哪些规则被遵循、扭曲或忽视了。高层管理当局――从CEO开始――在确定公司文化方面起着关键作用。作为主体中的居于支配地位的人员，CEO往往确定了道德基调。

特定的组织因素也会影响出现欺诈性和可疑的财务报告行为的可能性。这些因素可能还会影响道德行为。个人可能会因为主体给了他们这么做的强烈动机或诱惑，而参与不诚实的、非法的或不道德的行为。过分地强调结果，尤其是短期结果，可能会造成一个不恰当的内部环境。仅仅关注短期结果即使在短期也可能有危害。专注于底线――不顾成本的销售收入或利润――通常会引发不希望看到的行动和反应。例如，高压销售策略、谈判的残酷或者对回扣的暗示可能会引发具有即期（以及持久）影响的反应。

参与欺诈性和可疑的财务报告行为以及其他形式的不道德行为的其他动机可能包括高度依赖于所报告的财务或非财务信息――尤其是短期结果――的报酬。

从消除或减少不恰当的动机和诱惑到消除不良行为之间要走一段很长的路。就像所建议的那样，它可以通过从事合理而又有利可图的经营活动来实现。例如，只要业绩目标切合实际，业绩激励――配以适当的控制――就能成为一个有用的管理技术。设定切合实际的目标是一项正确的激励措施，它能降低产生相反作用的压力，以及欺诈性报告的动机。同样地，一个控制良好的报告体系能够起到防止错报业绩诱惑的作用。

可疑行为的另一个原因是忽视。道德价值观不仅必须沟通，而且必须辅以关于是非对错的明确指南。正式的公司行为守则对有效的道德项目十分重要，是它的基础。守则致力于一系列的行为问题，例如诚信与道德、利益冲突、不合法或不恰当的支付以及反竞争的（anticompetitive）协议等。向上沟通的渠道也很重要，它带来相关信息并使员工感到舒服。

仅仅有书面的行为守则、员工接受和理解的文件和适当的沟通渠道，还不能确保守则被遵守。对违反守则的员工所给予的处罚，鼓励员工报告所怀疑的违反行为的机制，以及针对知情而不报告违反行为的员工的惩戒措施，对于遵守守则而言也很重要。但是如果不能通过高层管理当局的行为和他们所作的表率提供更有效的保证的话，无论道德准则是否包含在书面的守则之中，对道德准则的遵守

都没有什么区别。对于是非对错――以及对于风险与控制，员工可能会形成与高层管理当局所表现出来的一样的态度。管理当局的行为所传达的信息很快就会被包含到公司文化之中。而且，有关CEO在面临一个艰难的.经营决策时从道德的角度讲“做了正确的事情”的认识，能够在整个主体中传达一个强有力的信息。 对胜任能力的要求

胜任能力反映实现规定的任务所需要的知识和技能。管理当局通过在主体的战略和目标与它们的执行和实现计划之间进行权衡，来决定这些任务应该完成到什么程度。通常会存在能力与成本之间的权衡，比如说，没有必要去雇用一个电气工程师来更换灯泡。

管理当局明确特定岗位的胜任能力水平，并把这些水平转换成所需的知识和技能。而这些必要的知识和技能可能又取决于个人的智力、培训和经验。在开发知识和技能水平的过程中所考虑的因素包括一个具体岗位所运用判断的性质和程度。通常会在监督的范围和所需的胜任能力水平之间作出权衡。

组织结构

一个主体的组织结构提供了计划、执行、控制和监督其活动的框架。相关的组织结构包括确定权力与责任的关键界区，以及确立恰当的报告途径。举例来说，内部审计职能机构的结构设计应该致力于实现组织的目标，并且允许不受限制地与高层管理当局和董事会的审计委员会接触，而且首席审计官应当向组织中能保证内部审计活动实现其职责的层级报告工作。

主体建立适合其需要的组织结构。有的是集权型的，有的是分权型的。有的有着直接报告关系，而其他的则更接近于矩阵型组织。一些主体按照行业或产品线、按照地理位置或者按照特定的配送或营销网络来进行组织。而其他的主体，包括很多州和地方政府单位以及非营利机构，则按照职能进行组织。

一个主体的组织结构的适当性部分地取决于它的规模和所从事活动的性质。有着正式的报告途径和职责的高度结构化的组织，可能适合于拥有很多经营分部、包括外国业务的大型主体。然而，在一家小公司中，这种结构可能会阻碍必要的信息流动。不管采取什么样的结构，主体的组织方式都应该确保有效的企业

风险管理，并采取行动以便实现其目标。

权力和职责的分配

权力和职责的分配涉及到个人和团队被授权并鼓励发挥主动性去指出问题和解决问题的程度，以及对他们的权力的限制。它包括确立报告关系和授权规程，以及描述恰当经营活动的政策，关键人员的知识和经验，和为履行职责而赋予的资源。

一些主体将权力下放，以便使决策更接近于一线的人员。公司可以采取这种方式而变得更具市场驱动的特点，或者更关注质量――或许是消除缺陷、缩短周转时间或者提高客户满意度。通常通过将权力与受托责任（accountability）相结合来鼓励个人在限定的范围内发挥主动性。权力的委派意味着将特定经营决策的核心控制权交给较低的层级――给那些更靠近日常经营业务的人员。这可能包括授权以折扣价格销售产品，商谈长期供货合同、许可或专利，或者参加联盟或合营企业。

一个关键的挑战是仅仅针对实现目标所需要的范围来进行授权。这意味着确保决策是基于合理的风险识别和评估活动，包括在确定接受何种风险以及如何对它们加以管理的过程中，估计风险的大小和权衡潜在的损失与收益。

另一个挑战是确保所有的人员都了解主体的目标。每个人都知道他们的行为彼此之间有什么关联和对实现目标有什么作用，是至关重要的。

增加授权有时候有意伴随着组织结构的简化或“扁平化”，或者是其结果。为激发创造性、发挥主动性和加快反应速度而开展的有意识的组织变革，能够提高竞争力和客户满意度。这种增加授权可能会带来对更高的员工胜任能力水平以及更大的受托责任的隐含要求。它还要求管理当局采用有效的程序对结果进行监控，从而使决策能够根据需要被否决或接受。有了更好的、市场驱动的决策，授权能够增加非期望或非预期决策的数量。例如，如果一个区域销售经理决定授权在零售价的基础上折让35%来进行销售，以证实目前45%的折扣能够获取市场份额，管理当局可能需要了解情况才能否决或者接受让这种决策进行下去。

内部环境极大地受到个人对他们将要承担责任的认识程度的影响。对于首席执行官而言，也是如此，他在董事会的监督下对主体内部的所有活动负有终极责

任。

与有效的企业风险管理密不可分的各个方面的职能与责任的其他相关原则，将在“职能与责任”那一章中展开讲述。

人力资源准则

包括雇用、定位、培训、评价、咨询、晋升、付酬和采取补偿措施在内的人力资源业务向员工传达着有关诚信、道德行为和胜任能力的期望水平方面的信息。例如，强调教育背景、前期工作经验、过去的成就和有关诚信和道德行为的证据，以便雇用资质最好的个人的准则，表明了一个主体对胜任和可信任人员的承诺。当招录活动中包括正式的、深入的招聘面试和有关该主体的历史、文化和经营风格方面的培训时，也是如此。

培训政策能够通过对未来职能与责任的沟通，以及包含诸如培训学校和研习班、模拟案例研究和扮演角色练习等活动，来加强业绩和行为的期望水平。根据定期业绩评价所进行的调换与晋升，反映了主体对于提升合格员工的承诺。包括分红激励在内的竞争性的报酬计划能够起到鼓励和强化突出业绩的作用――尽管奖金制度应该严密并且有效地控制，以避免对报告结果的不实呈报产生不当的诱惑。惩戒行动所传递的信息则是对期望行为的偏离将不会得到宽宥。

随着贯穿于主体之中的问题和风险的变化和愈加复杂――部分原因在于急剧变革的技术和日益激烈的竞争，很有必要把员工武装起来以应对新的挑战。教育和培训，不管是课堂讲授、自学还是在职培训，都必须有助于个人跟上环境变革的步伐并能有效地应对。雇用胜任的人员和提供一次性培训是不够的。教育过程是持续的。

影响

一个主体内部环境的重要性和它对企业风险管理的其他构成要素所能产生的正面或负面影响，怎么强调都不过分。一个无效的内部环境的影响会很广泛，可能会导致财务损失、损害公众形象，或经营失败。

一般认为某能源公司有着有效的企业风险管理，因为它有强有力而受人尊敬的高层管理者、声望卓著的董事会、富有创新意识的战略、设计良好的信息系统

和控制活动、描述风险和控制职能的广泛的政策手册，以及全面的调整和监督途径。但是，它的内部环境却有重大缺陷。管理当局参与了十分可疑的经营业务，而董事会却视而不见。这家公司被发现曾经误报财务成果，损害了股东信心，遭遇了偿债危机，毁灭了主体的价值。最终这家公司陷入了历史上最大的破产案之一。

高层管理当局对有效企业风险管理的态度和关注必须明确而清晰，并渗透到组织之中。光说得正确是不够的。那种“按我说的去做，而不是按我做的去做”的态度，只会带来一个无效的环境。

2. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Chapter Summary: The internal

environment encompasses the tone of an

organization, influencing the risk consciousness

of its people, and is the basis for all other

components of enterprise risk management,

providing discipline and structure. Internal

environment factors include an entity’s risk

management philosophy; its risk appetite;

oversight by the board of directors; the integrity,

ethical values, and competence of the entity’s people; and the way management assigns authority and responsibility, and organizes and develops its people.

The internal environment is the basis for all other components of enterprise risk management, providing discipline and structure. It influences how strategies and objectives are established, business activities are structured, and risks are identified, assessed, and acted upon. And it influences the design and functioning of control activities, information and communication systems, and monitoring activities.

The internal environment is influenced by an entity’s history and culture. It comprises many elements, including the entity’s ethical values, competence and development of personnel, management’s philosophy for managing risk, and how it assigns authority and responsibility. A board of directors is a critical part of the internal environment and significantly influences other internal environment elements.

Although all elements are important, the extent to which each is addressed will vary with the entity. For example, the chief executive of a company with a small workforce and centralized operations might not establish formal lines of responsibility and detailed operating policies. Nevertheless, the company could have an internal

environment that provides an appropriate foundation for enterprise risk management.

Risk Management Philosophy

An entity’s risk management philosophy is the set of shared beliefs and attitudes characterizing how the entity considers risk in everything it does, from strategy development and implementation to its day-to-day activities. Its risk management philosophy reflects the entity’s values, influencing its culture and operating style, and affects how enterprise risk management components are applied, including how risks are identified, the kinds of risks accepted, and how they are managed.

A company that has been successful accepting significant risks is likely to have a different outlook on enterprise risk management than one that has faced harsh economic or regulatory consequences as a result of venturing into dangerous territory. While some entities may work to achieve effective enterprise risk management to satisfy requirements of an external stakeholder, such as a parent company or regulator, more often it is because management recognizes that effective risk management helps the entity create and preserve value.

When the risk management philosophy is well developed, understood, and embraced by its personnel, the entity is positioned to effectively recognize and manage risk. Otherwise, there can be unacceptably uneven application of enterprise risk management across business units, functions, or departments. But even when an entity’s philosophy is well developed, there nonetheless may be cultural differences among its units, resulting in variation in enterprise risk management application. Managers of some units may be prepared to take more risk, while others are more conservative. For example, an aggressive selling function may focus its attention on making a sale, without careful attention to regulatory compliance matters, while the contracting unit’s personnel focus significant attention on ensuring compliance with all relevant internal and external policies and regulations. Separately, these different subcultures could adversely affect the entity. But by working well together the units can appropriately reflect the entity’s risk management philosophy.

The enterprise’s risk management philosophy is reflected in virtually everything management does in running the entity. It is captured in policy statements, oral and

written communications, and decision making. Whether management emphasizes written policies, standards of behavior, performance indicators, and exception reports, or operates more informally largely through face-to-face contact with key managers, of critical importance is that management reinforces the philosophy not only with words but also with everyday actions.

Risk Appetite

Risk appetite is the amount of risk, on a broad level, an entity is willing to accept in pursuit of value. It reflects the enterprise’s risk management philosophy, and in turn influences the entity’s culture and operating style.

Risk appetite is considered in strategy setting, where the desired return from a strategy should be aligned with the entity’s risk appetite. Different strategies will expose the entity to different levels of risk, and enterprise risk management, applied in strategy setting, helps management select a strategy consistent with the entity’s risk appetite.

Entities consider risk appetite qualitatively, with such categories as high, moderate, or low, or take a quantitative approach, reflecting and balancing goals for growth and return with risk.

Board of Directors

An entity’s board of directors is a critical part of the internal environment and significantly influences its elements. The board’s independence from management, experience and stature of its members, extent of its involvement and scrutiny of activities, and appropriateness of its actions all play a role. Other factors include the degree to which difficult questions are raised and pursued with management regarding strategy, plans, and performance, and interaction the board or audit committee has with internal and external auditors.

An active and involved board of directors, board of trustees, or comparable body should possess an appropriate degree of management, technical, and other expertise,

coupled with the mind-set necessary to perform its oversight responsibilities. This is critical to an effective enterprise risk management environment. And, because the board must be prepared to question and scrutinize management’s activities, present alternative views, and act in the face of wrongdoing, the board must include outside directors.

Members of top management may be effective board members, bringing their deep knowledge of the company. But there must be a sufficient number of independent outside directors not only to provide sound advice, counsel, and direction, but also to serve as a necessary check and balance on management. For the internal environment to be effective, the board must have at least a majority of independent outside directors.

Effective boards of directors ensure that management maintains effective risk management. Although an enterprise historically might have not suffered losses and have no obvious significant risk exposure, the board does not succumb to the mythical notion that events with seriously adverse consequences “couldn’t happen here.” It recognizes that while a company may have a sound strategy, competent employees, sound business processes, and reliable technology, it, like every entity, is vulnerable to risk, and an effectively functioning risk management process is needed.

Integrity and Ethical Values

An entity’s strategy and objectives and the way they are implemented are based on preferences, value judgments, and management styles. Management’s integrity and commitment to ethical values influence these preferences and judgments, which are translated into standards of behavior. Because an entity’s good reputation is so valuable, the standards of behavior must go beyond mere compliance with law. Managers of well-run enterprises increasingly have accepted the view that ethics pays and ethical behavior is good business.

Management integrity is a prerequisite for ethical behavior in all aspects of an entity’s activities. The effectiveness of enterprise risk management cannot rise above

the integrity and ethical values of the people who create, administer, and monitor entity activities. Integrity and ethical values are essential elements of an entity’s internal environment, affecting the design, administration, and monitoring of other enterprise risk management components.

Establishing ethical values often is difficult because of the need to consider the concerns of several parties. Management values must balance the concerns of the enterprise, employees, suppliers, customers, competitors, and the public. Balancing these concerns can be complex and frustrating because interests are often at odds. For example, providing an essential product (petroleum, lumber, or food) may cause environmental concerns.

Ethical behavior and management integrity are by-products of the corporate culture, which encompasses ethical and behavioral standards and how they are communicated and reinforced. Official policies specify what the board and management want to happen. Corporate culture determines what actually happens, and which rules are obeyed, bent, or ignored. Top management C starting with the CEO C plays a key role in determining the corporate culture. As the dominant personality in an entity, the CEO often sets the ethical tone.

Certain organizational factors also can influence the likelihood of fraudulent and questionable financial reporting practices. Those same factors are likely to influence ethical behavior as well. Individuals may engage in dishonest, illegal, or unethical acts simply because the entity gives them strong incentives or temptations to do so. Undue emphasis on results, particularly in the short term, can foster an inappropriate internal environment. Focusing solely on short- term results can hurt even in the short term. Concentration on the bottom line C sales or profit at any cost C often evokes unsought actions and reactions. High-pressure sales tactics, ruthlessness in negotiations, or implicit offers of kickbacks, for instance, may evoke reactions that can have immediate (as well as lasting) effects.

Other incentives for engaging in fraudulent or questionable reporting practices and, by extension, other forms of unethical behavior may include rewards highly dependent on reported financial and non-financial information, particularly for

short-term results.

Removing or reducing inappropriate incentives and temptations goes a long way toward eliminating undesirable behavior. As suggested, this can be achieved by following sound and profitable business practices. For example, performance incentives C accompanied by appropriate controls C can be a useful management technique as long as the performance targets are realistic. Setting realistic targets is a sound motivational practice, reducing counterproductive stress as well as the incentive for fraudulent reporting. Similarly, a well- controlled reporting system can serve as a safeguard against temptation to misstate performance.

Another cause of questionable practices is ignorance. Ethical values must be not only communicated but also accompanied by explicit guidance regarding what is right and wrong.

Formal codes of corporate conduct are important to and the foundation of an effective ethics program. Codes address a variety of behavioral issues, such as integrity and ethics, conflicts of interest, illegal or otherwise improper payments, and anticompetitive arrangements. Upward communications channels where employees feel comfortable bringing relevant information also are important.

Existence of a written code of conduct, documentation that employees received and understand it, and an appropriate communications channel by themselves do not ensure the code is being followed. Also important to compliance are resulting penalties to employees who violate the code, mechanisms that encourage employee reporting of suspected violations, and disciplinary actions against employees who knowingly fail to report violations. But compliance with ethical standards, whether or not embodied in a written code, is equally if not more effectively ensured by top management’s actions and the examples they set. Employees are likely to develop the same attitudes about right and wrong C and about risks and controls C as those shown by top management. Messages sent by management’s actions quickly become embodied in the corporate culture. And, knowledge that the CEO has “done the right thing” ethically when faced with a tough business decision, sends a powerful message throughout the entity.

Commitment to Competence

Competence reflects the knowledge and skills needed to perform assigned tasks. Management decides how well these tasks need to be accomplished, weighing the entity’s strategy and objectives against plans for their implementation and achievement. A trade-off often exists between competence and cost C it is not necessary, for instance, to hire an electrical engineer to change a light bulb.

Management specifies the competency levels for particular jobs and translates those levels into requisite knowledge and skills. The necessary knowledge and skills in turn may depend on individuals’ intelligence, training, and experience. Factors considered in developing knowledge and skill levels include the nature and degree of judgment to be applied to a specific job. Often a trade-off can be made between the extent of supervision and the requisite competence level of the individual.

Organizational Structure

An entity’s organizational structure provides the framework to plan, execute, control, and monitor its activities. A relevant organizational structure includes defining key areas of authority and responsibility and establishing appropriate lines of reporting. For example, an internal audit function should be structured in a manner that achieves organizational objectivity and permits unrestricted access to top management and the audit committee of the board, and the chief audit executive should report to a level within the organization that allows the internal audit activity to fulfill its responsibilities.

An entity develops an organizational structure suited to its needs. Some are centralized, others decentralized. Some have direct reporting relationships, while others are more of a matrix organization. Some entities are organized by industry or product line, by geographical location or by a particular distribution or marketing network. Other entities, including many state and local governmental units and not-for-profit institutions, are organized by function.

The appropriateness of an entity’s organizational structure depends, in part, on its

size and the nature of its activities. A highly structured organization with formal reporting lines and responsibilities may be appropriate for a large entity that has numerous operating divisions, including foreign operations. However, such a structure could impede the necessary flow of information in a small company. Whatever the structure, an entity should be organized to enable effective enterprise risk management and to carry out its activities so as to achieve its objectives.

Assignment of Authority and Responsibility

Assignment of authority and responsibility involves the degree to which individuals and teams are authorized and encouraged to use initiative to address issues and solve problems, as well as limits to their authority. It includes establishing reporting relationships and authorization protocols, as well as policies that describe appropriate business practices, knowledge and experience of key personnel, and resources provided for carrying out duties.

Some entities have pushed authority downward to bring decision making closer to front-line personnel. A company may take this tack to become more market-driven or quality-focused C perhaps to eliminate defects, reduce cycle time, or increase customer satisfaction. Alignment of authority and accountability often is designed to encourage individual initiatives, within limits. Delegation of authority means surrendering central control of certain business decisions to lower echelons C to the individuals who are closest to everyday business transactions. This may involve empowerment to sell products at discount prices; negotiate long-term supply contracts, licenses, or patents; or enter alliances or joint ventures.

A critical challenge is to delegate only to the extent required to achieve objectives. This means ensuring that decision making is based on sound practices for risk identification and assessment, including sizing risks and weighing potential losses versus gains in determining which risks to accept and how they are to be managed.

Another challenge is ensuring that all personnel understand the entity’s objectives. It is essential that individuals know how their actions are related to one

another and contribute to achievement of the objectives.

Increased delegation sometimes is intentionally accompanied by or the result of streamlining or “flattening” the organizational structure. Purposeful structural change to encourage creativity, taking initiative, and faster response times can enhance competitiveness and cu外文翻译范文stomer satisfaction. This increased delegation may carry an implicit requirement for a higher level of employee competence, as well as greater accountability. It also requires effective procedures for management to monitor results so that decisions can be overruled or accepted as necessary. Along with better, market-driven decisions, delegation may increase the number of undesirable or unanticipated decisions. For example, if a district sales manager decides that authorization to sell at 35% off list price justifies a temporary 45% discount to gain market share, management may need to know so that it can overrule or accept such decisions going forward.

The internal environment is greatly influenced by the extent to which individuals recognize that they will be held accountable. This holds true all the way to the chief executive, who, with board oversight, has ultimate responsibility for all activities within an entity.

Additional principles related to roles and responsibilities by parties integral to effective enterprise risk management are set forth in the Roles and Responsibilities chapter.

Human Resource Standards

Human resource practices pertaining to hiring, orientation, training, evaluating, counseling, promoting, compensating, and taking remedial actions send messages to employees regarding expected levels of integrity, ethical behavior, and competence. For example, standards for hiring the most qualified individuals, with emphasis on educational background, prior work experience, past accomplishments, and evidence of integrity and ethical behavior, demonstrate an entity’s commitment to competent and trustworthy people. The same is true when recruiting practices include formal,

in-depth employment interviews and training in the entity’s history, culture, and operating style.

Training policies can reinforce expected levels of performance and behavior by communicating prospective roles and responsibilities and by including such practices as training schools and seminars, simulated case studies, and role-playing exercises. Transfers and promotions driven by periodic performance appraisals demonstrate the entity’s commitment to advancement of qualified employees. Competitive compensation programs that include bonus incentives serve to motivate and reinforce outstanding performance C although reward systems should be structured, and controls in place, to avoid undue temptation to misrepresent reported results. Disciplinary actions send a message that violations of expected behavior will not be tolerated.

It is essential that employees be equipped to tackle new challenges as issues and risks throughout the entity change and become more complex C driven in part by rapidly changing technologies and increasing competition. Education and training, whether classroom instruction, self-study, or on-the-job training, must help personnel keep pace and deal effectively with the evolving environment. Hiring competent people and providing one-time training are not enough. The education process is ongoing.

Implications

It is difficult to overstate the importance of an entity’s internal environment and the impact C positive or negative C it can have on other enterprise risk management components. The impact of an ineffective internal environment can be far-reaching, possibly resulting in financial loss, a tarnished public image, or a business failure.

An energy company generally was thought to have effective enterprise risk management since it had high-powered and respected senior managers, a prestigious board of directors, an innovative strategy, well-designed information systems and control activities, extensive policy manuals prescribing risk and control functions, and

comprehensive reconciling and supervisory routines. Its internal environment, however, was significantly flawed.

Management participated in highly questionable business practices, and the board turned a “blind-eye.” The company was found to have misreported financial results and suffered a loss of shareholder confidence, a liquidity crisis, and destruction of entity value. Ultimately the company went into one of the largest bankruptcies in history.

The attitude and concern of top management for effective enterprise risk management must be definitive and clear, and permeate the organization. It is not sufficient to say the right words. An attitude of “do as I say, not as I do” will only bring about an ineffective environment.

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篇3：外文出处怎么写

在写参考文献时，格式要依据你想投稿的期刊而调整，按对方的'常用格式来。可以使用Endnote等文献管理软件来调整格式，会方便不少。

1、有些期刊的格式是在文中标注数字，然后在全文结束后附上参考文献，按顺序写。

例如：

[1] Kunz-Schughart LA，Heder P．Schroeder J．et al. A heterologous 3-D coculture modeI of breast tumor cells and fibroblasts to study tumor-associated fibroblast differentiation[J].Exp

Cell Res, ．266(1)：74—86．

（作者、文献标题、出处、年份、卷数、页码）

2、有些期刊会在文中引用部分后直接加括号，在括号里写参考文献。

例如：

……Previously, we showed that retinal progenitors, photoreceptors and RPE cells can be generated from ES cells by mimicking developmental processes in a stepwise fashion in vitro (Ikeda et al., ; Osakada et al.,2008; Osakada et al., ).

然后在全文结束后写对应的详情（常按首字母顺序排列）：

Ikeda, H., Osakada, F., Watanabe, K., Mizuseki, K., Haraguchi, T., Miyoshi, H., Kamiya, D., Honda, Y., Sasai, N., Yoshimura, N. et al. (2005). Generation of Rx+/Pax6+ neural retinal precursors from embryonic stem cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 11331-11336.

篇4：外文婚礼邀请函格式

mr. and mrs.  request the honour of the presence of

mr. and mrs.

at the marriage of their daughter

to

mr.

saturday, the  of

at four o'clock p.m.

church of

篇5：外文参考文献的格式

最新外文参考文献(一)

英文文献采用 APA

格式 ：

单一作者著作的书籍：

姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.

Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.

两位作者以上合著的书籍：

姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社. Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press.

文集中的文章：

Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42C64). London: OtherWorld Books.

期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：

Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34C37.

期刊中的文章(连续页码)：

姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.

Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66C146.

月刊杂志中的文章：

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

学位论文参考文献的格式(二)

期刊作者.题名[J].刊名，出版年，卷(期)：起止页码

专著作者.书名[M].版本(第一版不著录).出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码

论文集作者.题名[C].编者.论文集名.出版地：出版者，出版年.

起止页码

学位论文作者.题名[D].保存地点：保存单位，年份

专利文献题名[P].国别，专利文献种类，专利号.出版日期

标准标准编号，标准名称[S]

报纸作者.题名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)

报告作者.题名[R].保存地点：年份

电子文献作者.题名[电子文献及载体类型标识].文献出处，日期

文献类型及其标识

根据GB3469 规定

①期刊[J]

②专著[M]

③论文集[C]

④学位论文[D]

⑤专利[P]

⑥标准[S]

⑦报纸[N]

⑧技术报告[R]

电子文献载体类型用双字母标识，例如：

①磁带[MT]

②磁盘[DK]

③光盘[CD]

④联机网络[OL]

①联机网上数据库[DB/OL]

②磁带数据库[DB/MT]

③光盘图书[M/CD]

④磁盘软件[CP/DK]

⑤网上期刊[J/OL]

⑥网上电子公告[EB/OL]

期刊论文

[1]周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323

[2]Dobbs J M, Wong J M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polor coselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56

[3]刘仲能，金文清.合成医药中间体4-甲基咪唑的研究[J].精细化工，

(2)：103-105

[ 4 ] Mesquita A C, Mori M N, Vieira J M, et al . Vinyl acetatepolymerization by ionizing radiation[J].Radiation Physics and Chemistry,, 63:465

专著

[1]蒋挺大.亮聚糖[M].北京：化学工业出版社，.127

[2]Kortun G. Reflectance Spectroscopy[M]. New York: Spring-Verlag,1969

论文集

[1]郭宏，王熊，刘宗林.膜分离技术在大豆分离蛋白生产中综合利用的

研究[C].余立新.第三届全国膜和膜过程学术报告会议论文集.北京：高教出版社，.421-425

[2]Eiben A E, vander Hauw J K.Solving 3-SAT with adaptive geneticalgorithms [C].Proc 4th IEEE ConfEvolutionary Computation.Piscataway:

IEEE Press, .81-86

学位论文

[1]陈金梅.氟石膏生产早强快硬水泥的试验研究(D).西安：西安建筑科学大学，

[ 2 ] Chrisstoffels L A J . Carrier-facilitated transport as a

mechanistic tool in supramolecular chemistry[D].The Netherland：TwenteUniversity.1988

专利文献

[1]Hasegawa, Toshiyuki, Yoshida,et al.Paper Coating composition[P].EP 0634524.1995-01-18

[ 2 ] 仲前昌夫， 佐藤寿昭. 感光性树脂[ P ]. 日本， 特开平

[3]Yamaguchi K, Hayashi A. Plant growth promotor and productionthereof [P].Jpn, Jp1290606.1999-11-22

[4]厦门大学.二烷氨基乙醇羧酸酯的制备方法[P].中国发明专利，

CN1073429.1993-06-23

技术标准文献

[1]ISO 1210-1982，塑料 小试样接触火焰法测定塑料燃烧性[S]

[2]GB 2410-80，透明塑料透光率及雾度实验方法[S]

报纸

[1]陈志平.减灾设计研究新动态[N].科技日报，1997-12-12(5)

报告

[1]中国机械工程学会.密相气力输送技术[R].北京：

电子文献

[1]万锦柔.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993)[DB/CD].北京：中国百科全书出版社，1996

1.毕业论文外文文献格式要求

2.外文参考文献书写格式

3.外文参考文献的标准格式

4.留学生毕业论文参考文献格式

5.论文参考文献格式怎么写?

6.学术论文参考文献格式及要求

7.报纸参考文献格式

8.论文参考文献标准格式(附范文)

9.英语论文参考文献格式

篇6：外文翻译机械手

外文翻译机械手

毕业设计

文献翻译

院（系）名称 工学院机械系

专业名称 机械设计制造及其自动化

学生姓名

指导教师

周昕 杨汉嵩

03 月 10 日

机械手

摘要：机械手是近几十年发展起来的一种高科技自动化生产设备。工业机械手是工业机器人的一个重要分支。它的特点是可通过编程来完成各种预期的作业任务，在构造和性能上兼有人和机器各自的优点，尤其体现了人的智能和适应性。机械手作业的准确性和各种环境中完成作业的能力，在国民经济各领域有着广阔的发展前景。随着工业自动化的发展, 出现了数控加工中心,它在减轻工人的劳动强度的同时, 大大提高了劳动生产率。但数控加工中常见的上下料工序, 通常仍采用人工操作或传统继电器控制的半自动化装置。前者费时费工、效率低; 后者因设计复杂, 需较多继电器,接线繁杂, 易受车体振动干扰,而存在可靠性差、故障多、维修困难等问题。可编程序控制器PLC控制的上下料机械手控制系统动作简便、线路设计合理、具有较强的抗干扰能力, 保证了系统运行的可靠性,降低了维修率, 提高了工作效率。机械手技术涉及到力学、机械学、电气液压技术、自动控制技术、传感器技术和计算机技术等科学领域，是一门跨学科综合技术。

关键词：机械手，工业机器人，半自动化装置，编程序控制器

一、工业机械手的概述

机械手是一种能自动化定位控制并可重新编程序以变动的多功能机器，它有多个自由度，可用来搬运物体以完成在各个不同环境中工作。在工资水平较低的中国，塑料制品行业尽管仍属于劳动力密集型，机械手的使用已经越来越普及。那些电子和汽车业的欧美跨国公司很早就在它们设在中国的工厂中引进了自动化生产。但现在的变化是那些分布在工业密集的华南、华东沿海地区的中国本土塑料加工厂也开始对机械手表现出越来越浓厚的兴趣，因为他们要面对工人流失率高，以及为工人交工伤费带来的挑战。

随着我国工业生产的飞跃发展，特别是改革开发以后，自动化程度的迅速提高，实现工件的装卸、转向、输送或操作钎焊、喷枪、扳手等工具进行加工、装配等作业自化，已愈来愈引起我们重视。

机械手是模仿着人手的部分动作，按给定的程序、轨迹和要求实现自动抓取、搬运或操作的自动机械装置。

在现实生活中，你是否会发现这样一个问题。在机械工厂里，加工零件装料的时候是不是很烦的，劳动生产率不高，生产成本大，有时候还会发生一些人为事故，

导致加工者受伤。想想看用什么可以来代替呢，加工的时候只要有几个人巡视一下，且可以二十四个小时饱和运作，人行吗？回答是肯定的，但是机械手可以来代替它。

生产中应用机械手可以提高生产的自动化水平和劳动生产率;可以减轻劳动强度、保证产品质量、实现安全生产；尤其是在高温、高压、低温、低压、粉尘、易爆、有毒气体和放射性等恶劣的环境中能够代替人进行正常的工作。想到这里我就很想设计一个机械手，来用于生产实际中。

为什么选着设计机械手用气动来提供动力：气动机械手是指以压缩空气为动力源驱动的机械手。用气压驱动与其他能源驱动比较有以下优点：1.空气取之不竭，用过之后排入大气，不需要回收和处理，不污染环境。（环保的概念）2.空气的沾性很小，管路中压力损失也很小（一般气路阻力损失不到油路的千分之一），便于远距离输送。3.压缩空气的工作压力较低(一般为4～8公斤/每平方厘米)，因此对动元件的材质和制造精度要求可以降低。4.与液压传动相比，它的动作和反应都快，这是气动突出的优点之一。5.空气介质清洁，亦不会变质，管路不易堵塞。但是也有它美中不足的地方：1.由于空气的可压缩性，致使气动工作的稳定性差，因而造成执行机构运动速度和定为精度不易控制。2.由于使用气压较低，输出力不可能太大，为了增加输出力，必然使整个气动系统的结构尺寸加大。

用气压驱动与用其他能源驱动比较有以下优点：

空气取之不竭，用过之后排入大气，不需回收和处理，不污染环境。偶然的或少量的泄漏不致对生产发生严重的影响。

空气的粘性很小，管路中压力损失也就很小，便于远距离输送。

压缩空气的工作压力较低，因此对气动元件的材质和制造精度要求可以降低。一般说来，往复运动推力在1~2吨以下采用气动经济性较好。

与液压传动相比，它的动作和反应都快，这是气动的突出优点之一。

空气介质清洁，亦不会变质，管路不易堵塞。

它可安全地应用在易燃、易爆和粉尘大的场合。又便于实现过载自动保护. 二p机械手的组成

机械手的形式是多种多样的，有的较为简单，有的较为复杂，但基本的.组成形式是相同的，一般由执行机构、传动系统、控制系统和辅助装置组成。

1. 执行机构

机械手的执行机构，由手、手腕、手臂、支柱组成。手是抓取机构，用来夹紧

和松开工件，与人的手指相仿，能完成人手的类似动作。手腕是连接手指与手臂的元件，可以进行上下、左右和回转动作。简单的机械手可以没有手腕。支柱用来支撑手臂，也可以根据需要做成移动。

2. 传动系统

执行机构的动作要由传动系统来实现。常用机械手传动系统分机械传动、液压传动、气压传动和电力传动等几种形式。

3. 控制系统

机械手控制系统的主要作用是控制机械手按一定的程序、方向、位置、速度进行动作，简单的机械手一般不设置专用的控制系统，只采用行程开关、继电器、控制阀及电路便可实现动传动系统的控制，使执行机构按要求进行动作．动作复杂的机械手则要采用可编程控制器、微型计算机进行控制。

三p 机械手的分类和特点

机械手一般分为三类：第一类是不需要人工操作的通用机械手。它是一种独立的不附属于某一主机的装置。它可以根据任务的需要编制程序，以完成各项规定的操作。它的特点是具备普通机械的性能之外，还具备通用机械、记忆智能的三元机械。第二类是需要人工才做的，称为操作机。它起源于原子、军事工业，先是通过操作机来完成特定的作业，后来发展到用无线电讯号操作机来进行探测月球等。工业中采用的锻造操作机也属于这一范畴。第三类是用专用机械手，主要附属于自动机床或自动线上，用以解决机床上下料和工件送。这种机械手在国外称为

“Mechanical Hand”，它是为主机服务的，由主机驱动；除少数以外，工作程序一般是固定的，因此是专用的。 主要特点：

(1) 机械手（上下料机械手、装配机械手、搬运机械手、堆垛机械手、助力机械手、真空搬运机、真空吸吊机、省力吊具、气动平衡器等）。

(2) 悬臂起重机（悬臂吊、电动环链葫芦吊、气动平衡吊等）

(3) 导轨式搬运系统（悬挂轨道、轻型轨道、单梁起重机、双梁起重机）

(4) 工业机械手的应用

机械手是在机械化、自动化生产过程中发展起来的一种新型装置。近年来，随着电子技术特别是电子计算机的广泛应用，机器人的研制和生产已成为高技术领域内迅速发展起来的一门新兴技术，它更加促进了机械手的发展，使得机械手能更好

地实现与机械化和自动化的有机结合。

机械手虽然目前还不如人手那样灵活，但它具有能不断重复工作和劳动、不知疲劳、不怕危险、抓举重物的力量比人手大等特点，因此，机械手已受到许多部门的重视，并越来越广泛地得到了应用，例如：

(1) 机床加工工件的装卸，特别是在自动化车床、组合机床上使用较为普遍。

(2) 在装配作业中应用广泛，在电子行业中它可以用来装配印制电路板，在机械行业中它可以用来组装零部件。

(3) 可在劳动条件差，单调重复易子疲劳的工作环境工作，以代替人的劳动。

(4) 可在危险场合下工作，如军工品的装卸、危险品及有害物的搬运等。

(5) 宇宙及海洋的开发。

(6) 军事工程及生物医学方面的研究和试验。 助力机械手:又称平衡器、平衡吊、省力吊具、手动移载机等，是一种无重力化手动承载系统，一种新颖的、用于物料搬运时省力化操作的助力设备,属于一种非标设计的系列化产品。针对客户应用需求，量身定制的个案创作。

一种模拟人手操作的自动机械，它可按固定程序抓取p搬运物件或操持工具完成某些特定操作。应用机械手可以代替人从事单调p重复或繁重的体力劳动，实现生产的机械化和自动化，代替人在有害环境下的手工操作，改善劳动条件，保证人身安全。20世纪40年代后期，美国在原子能实验中，首先采用机械手搬运放射性材料，人在安全室操纵机械手进行各种操作和实验。50年代以后，机械手逐步推广到工业生产部门，用于在高温p污染严重的地方取放工件和装卸材料，也作为机床的辅助装置在自动机床p自动生产线和加工中心中应用，完成上下料或从刀库中取放刀具并按固定程序更换刀具等操作。机械手主要由手部机构和运动机构组成。手部机构随使用场合和操作对象而不同，常见的有夹持p托持和吸附等类型。运动机构一般由液压p气动p电气装置驱动。机械手可独立地实现伸缩p旋转和N降等运动，一般有2～3个自由度。机械手广泛用于机械u造p冶金p轻工和原子能等部门。

能模仿人手和臂的某些动作功能，用以按固定程序抓取、搬运物件或操作工具的自动操作装置。它可代替人的繁重劳动以实现生产的机械化和自动化，能在有害环境下操作以保护人身安全，因而广泛应用于机械制造、冶金、电子、轻工和原子能等部门。 机械手通常用作机床或其他机器的附加装置，如在自动机床或自动生

产线上装卸和传递工件，在加工中心中更换刀具等，一般没有独立的控制装置。有些操作装置需要由人直接操纵，如用于原子能部门操持危险物品的主从式操作手也常称为机械手。

机械手主要由手部和运动机构组成。手部是用来抓持工件（或工具）的部件，根据被抓持物件的形状、尺寸、重量、材料和作业要求而有多种结构形式，如夹持型、托持型和吸附型等。运动机构，使手部完成各种转动（摆动）、移动或复合运动来实现规定的动作，改变被抓持物件的位置和姿势......

机械手是在自动化生产过程中使用的一种具有抓取和移动工件功能的自动化装置，它是在机械化、自动化生产过程中发展起来的一种新型装置。近年来，随着电子技术特别是电子计算机的广泛应用，机器人的研制和生产已成为高技术领域内迅速发展起来的一门新兴技术，它更加促进了机械手的发展，使得机械手能更好地实现与机械化和自动化的有机结合。机械手能代替人类完成危险、重复枯燥的工作，减轻人类劳动强度，提高劳动生产力。机械手越来越广泛的得到了应用，在机械行业中它可用于零部件组装 ，加工工件的搬运、装卸，特别是在自动化数控机床、组合机床上使用更普遍。目前，机械手已发展成为柔性制造系统FMS和柔性制造单元FMC中一个重要组成部分。把机床设备和机械手共同构成一个柔性加工系统或柔性制造单元，它适应于中、小批量生产，可以节省庞大的工件输送装置，结构紧凑，而且适应性很强。当工件变更时，柔性生产系统很容易改变，有利于企业不断更新适销对路的品种，提高产品质量，更好地适应市场竞争的需要。而目前我国的工业机器人技术及其工程应用的水平和国外比还有一定的距离，应用规模和产业化水平低，机械手的研究和开发直接影响到我国自动化生产水平的提高，从经济上、技术上考虑都是十分必要的。因此，进行机械手的研究设计是非常有意义的。

Manipulator

Abstract： Robot developed in recent decades as high-tech automated production equipment. Industrial robot is an important branch of industrial robots. It features can be programmed to perform tasks in a variety of expectations, in both structure and performance advantages of their own people and machines, in particular, reflects the people's intelligence and adaptability. The accuracy of robot operations and a variety of environments the ability to complete the work in the field of national economy and there are broad prospects for development. With the development of industrial automation, there has been CNC machining center, it is in reducing labor intensity, while greatly improved labor productivity. However, the upper and lower common in CNC machining processes material, usually still use manual or traditional relay-controlled semi-automatic device. The former time-consuming and labor intensive, inefficient; the latter due to design complexity, require more relays, wiring complexity, vulnerability to body vibration interference, while the existence of poor reliability, fault more maintenance problems and other issues. Programmable Logic Controller PLC-controlled robot control system for materials up and down movement is simple, circuit design is reasonable, with a strong anti-jamming capability, ensuring the system's reliability, reduced maintenance rate, and improve work efficiency. Robot technology related to mechanics, mechanics, electrical hydraulic technology, automatic control technology, sensor technology and computer technology and other fields of science, is a cross-disciplinary integrated technology.

Keywords： Mechanical hand, industrial robots, semi automatic device, the programmable controller

First, an overview of industrial manipulator

Robot is a kind of positioning control can be automated and can be re-programmed to change in multi-functional machine, which has multiple degrees of freedom can be used to carry an object in order to complete the work in different environments. Low wages in China, plastic products industry, although still a labor-intensive, mechanical hand use has become increasingly popular. Electronics and automotive industries that Europe and the United States multinational companies very early in their factories in China, the introduction of automated production. But now the changes are those found in industrial-intensive South China, East China's coastal areas,

local plastic processing plants have also emerged in mechanical watches began to become increasingly interested in, because they have to face a high turnover rate of workers, as well as for the workers to pay work-related injuries fee challenges.

With the rapid development of China's industrial production, especially the reform and opening up after the rapid increase in the degree of automation to achieve the workpiece handling, steering, transmission or operation of brazing, spray gun, wrenches and other tools for processing and assembly operations since, which has more and more attracted our attention.

Robot is to imitate the manual part of the action, according to a given program, track and requirements for automatic capture, handling or operation of the automatic mechanical devices.

In real life, you will find this a problem. In the machine shop, the processing of parts loading time is not annoying, and labor productivity is not high, the cost of production major, and sometimes man-made incidents will occur, resulting in processing were injured. Think about what could replace it with the processing time of a tour as long as there are a few people, and can operate 24 hours saturated human right? The answer is yes, but the robot can come to replace it.

Production of mechanical hand can increase the automation level of production and labor productivity; can reduce labor intensity, ensuring product quality, to achieve safe production; particularly in the high-temperature, high pressure, low temperature, low pressure, dust, explosive, toxic and radioactive gases such as poor environment can replace the normal working people. Here I would like to think of designing a robot to be used in actual production.

Why would a robot designed to provide a pneumatic power: pneumatic robot refers to the compressed air as power source-driven robot. With pressure-driven and other energy-driven comparison have the following advantages: 1. Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere,

does not require recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment. (Concept of environmental protection) 2. Air stick is small, the pipeline pressure loss is small (typically less than asphalt gas path pressure drop of one-thousandth), to facilitate long-distance transport. 3. Compressed air of the working pressure is low (usually 4 to 8 kg / per square centimeter), and therefore moving the material components and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered. 4. With the hydraulic transmission, compared to its faster action and reaction, which is one of the advantages pneumatic outstanding. 5. The air cleaner media, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. But there are also places where it fly in the ointment:

1. As the compressibility of air, resulting in poor aerodynamic stability of the work, resulting in the implementing agencies as the precision of the velocity and not easily controlled. 2. As the use of low atmospheric pressure, the output power can not be too large; in order to increase the output power is bound to the structure of the entire pneumatic system size increased.

With pneumatic drive and compare with other energy sources drive has the following advantages:

Air inexhaustible, used later discharged into the atmosphere, without recycling and disposal, do not pollute the environment. Accidental or a small amount of leakage would not be a serious impact on production.

Viscosity of air is small, the pipeline pressure loss also is very small, easy long-distance transport.

The lower working pressure of compressed air, pneumatic components and therefore the material and manufacturing accuracy requirements can be lowered. In general, reciprocating thrust in 1 to 2 tons pneumatic economy is better.

Compared with the hydraulic transmission, and its faster action and reaction, which is one of the outstanding merits of pneumatic.

Clean air medium, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. It can be safely used in flammable, explosive and the dust big occasions.

Also easy to realize automatic overload protection.

Second, the composition, mechanical hand

Robot in the form of a variety of forms, some relatively simple, some more complicated, but the basic form is the same as the composition of the , Usually by the implementing agencies, transmission systems, control systems and auxiliary devices composed.

1. Implementing agencies

Manipulator executing agency by the hands, wrists, arms, pillars. Hands are crawling institutions, is used to clamp and release the workpiece, and similar to human fingers, to complete the staffing of similar actions. Wrist and fingers and the arm connecting the components can be up and down, left, and rotary movement. A simple mechanical hand can not wrist. Pillars used to support the arm can also be made mobile as needed.

2. Transmission

The actuator to be achieved by the transmission system. Sub-transmission system commonly used manipulator mechanical transmission, hydraulic transmission, pneumatic and electric power transmission and other drive several forms.

3. Control System

Manipulator control system's main role is to control the robot according to certain procedures, direction, position, speed of action, a simple mechanical hand is generally not set up a dedicated control system, using only trip switches, relays, control valves and circuits can be achieved dynamic drive system control, so that implementing agencies according to the requirements of action. Action will have to use complex programmable robot controller, the micro-computer control.

Three, mechanical hand classification and characteristics

Robots are generally divided into three categories: the first is the general machinery does not require manual hand. It is an independent not affiliated with a particular host device. It can be programmed according to the needs

of the task to complete the operation of the provisions. It is characterized with ordinary mechanical performance, also has general machinery, memory, intelligence ternary machinery. The second category is the need to manually do it, called the operation of aircraft. It originated in the atom, military industry, first through the operation of machines to complete a particular job, and later developed to operate using radio signals to carry out detecting machines such as the Moon. Used in industrial manipulator also fall into this category. The third category is dedicated manipulator, the main subsidiary of the automatic machines or automatic lines, to solve the machine up and down the workpiece material and delivery. This mechanical hand in foreign countries known as the “Mechanical Hand”, which is the host of services, from the host-driven; exception of a few outside the working procedures are generally fixed, and therefore special.

Main features:

First, mechanical hand (the upper and lower material robot, assembly robot, handling robot, stacking robot, help robot, vacuum handling machines, vacuum suction crane, labor-saving spreader, pneumatic balancer, etc.).

Second, cantilever cranes (cantilever crane, electric chain hoist crane, air balance the hanging, etc.)

Third, rail-type transport system (hanging rail, light rail, single girder cranes, double-beam crane)

Four, industrial machinery, application of hand

Manipulator in the mechanization and automation of the production process developed a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation.

Although the robot is not as flexible as staff, but it has to the continuous duplication of work and labor, I do not know fatigue, not afraid of danger,

the power snatch weight characteristics when compared with manual large, therefore, mechanical hand has been of great importance to many sectors, and increasingly has been applied widely, for example:

(1) Machining the workpiece loading and unloading, especially in the automatic lathe, combination machine tool use is more common.

(2) In the assembly operations are widely used in the electronics industry, it can be used to assemble printed circuit boards, in the machinery industry It can be used to assemble parts and components.

(3) The working conditions may be poor, monotonous, repetitive easy to sub-fatigue working environment to replace human labor.

(4) May be in dangerous situations, such as military goods handling, dangerous goods and hazardous materials removal and so on.

(5) Universe and ocean development.

(6), military engineering and biomedical research and testing.

Help mechanical hands: also known as the balancer, balance suspended, labor-saving spreader, manual Transfer machine is a kind of weightlessness of manual load system, a novel, time-saving technology for material handling operations booster equipment, belonging to kinds of non-standard design of series products. Customer application needs, creating customized cases. Manual operation of a simulation of the automatic machinery, it can be a fixed program draws p handling objects or perform household tools to accomplish certain specific actions. Application of robot can replace the people engaged in monotonous p repetitive or heavy manual labor, the mechanization and automation of production, instead of people in hazardous environments manual operation, improving working conditions and ensure personal safety. The late 20th century, 40, the United States atomic energy experiments, the first use of radioactive material handling robot, human robot in a safe room to manipulate various operations and experimentation. 50 years later, manipulator and gradually extended to industrial production sector, for the temperatures, polluted areas, and loading and unloading to

take place the work piece material, but also as an auxiliary device in automatic machine tools, machine tools, automatic production lines and processing center applications, the completion of the upper and lower material, or From the library take place knife knife and so on according to fixed procedures for the replacement operation. Robot body mainly by the hand and sports institutions. Agencies with the use of hands and operation of objects of different occasions, often there are clamping p support and adsorption type of care. Movement organs are generally hydraulic pneumatic p p electrical device drivers. Manipulator can be achieved independently retractable p rotation and lifting movements, generally 2 to 3 degrees of freedom. Robots are widely used in metallurgical industry, machinery manufacture, light industry and atomic energy sectors.

Can mimic some of the staff and arm motor function, a fixed procedure for the capture, handling objects or operating tools, automatic operation device. It can replace human labor in order to achieve the production of heavy mechanization and automation that can operate in hazardous environments to protect the personal safety, which is widely used in machinery manufacturing, metallurgy, electronics, light industry and nuclear power sectors. Mechanical hand tools or other equipment commonly used for additional devices, such as the automatic machines or automatic production line handling and transmission of the workpiece, the replacement of cutting tools in machining centers, etc. generally do not have a separate control device. Some operating devices require direct manipulation by humans; such as the atomic energy sector performs household hazardous materials used in the master-slave manipulator is also often referred to as mechanical hand. Manipulator mainly by hand and sports institutions. Task of hand is holding the workpiece (or tool) components, according to grasping objects by shape, size, weight, material and operational requirements of a variety of structural forms, such as clamp type, type and adsorption-based care such as holding. Sports organizations, so that the completion of a variety of

hand rotation (swing), mobile or compound movements to achieve the required action, to change the location of objects by grasping and posture.

Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is mechanized and automated production process developed a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has become a rapidly developed a new technology, which further promoted the development of robot, allowing robot to better achieved with the combination of mechanization and automation. Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication of boring work, to reduce human labor intensity and improve labor productivity. Manipulator has been applied more and more widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloading, particularly in the automation of CNC machine tools, modular machine tools more commonly used. At present, the robot has developed into a FMS flexible manufacturing systems and flexible manufacturing cell in an important component of the FMC. The machine tool equipment and machinery in hand together constitute a flexible manufacturing system or a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable. When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help enterprises to continuously update the marketable variety, improve product quality, and better adapt to market competition. At present, China's industrial robot technology and its engineering application level and comparable to foreign countries there is a certain distance, application and industrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, technical considerations are very necessary. Therefore, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.

篇7：毕业论文外文文献格式

参考文献的引用应当实事求是、科学合理，不可以为了凑数随便引用。毕业论文外文文献的格式是什么?

毕业论文外文文献格式

格式要求

一、翻译的外文文献一般为1~2篇，外文字符要求不少于1.5万(或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上)。

二、翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关着作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文(设计)主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文(设计)的参考文献。并在每篇中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文。

三、中文译文的基本撰写格式为题目采用小三号黑体字居中打印，正文采用宋体小四号字，行间距一般为固定值20磅，标准字符间距。页边距为左3cm,右2.5cm,上下各2.5cm,页面统一采用A4纸。

四、封面格式由学校统一制作(注：封面上的“翻译题目”指中文译文的题目，附件1为一篇外文翻译的封面格式，附件二为两篇外文翻译的封面格式)，若有两篇外文文献，请按“封面、译文一、外文原文一、译文二、外文原文二”的顺序统一装订。

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参考文献范例：

[1] FREDERICK S,RICHARD B,ERIC M, Full body interface pressure testing as a method for performance evaluation of clinical support surfaces [Jj. Applied Ergonomics, ,29(6)： 491-497.

[2]Roy J E, Dick F S, Eus J W.Skin temperature and sleep-onset latency: Changes with age and insomnia [J]. Physiology Behavior, , 90(2-3)： 257~266.

[3]Hyunja L, Sejin P. Quantitative effects of mattress types (comfortable vs. uncomfortable) on sleep quality through poly-somnography and skin temperature[J]. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics,, 36(11)： 943一949.

[4]Miguel L T, Rosa P J. Objective firmness, average pressure and subjective perception in mattresses for the elderly [ J].Applied Ergonomics, , 39(1)：123-130.

[5]Ling L T,Hau M L.Effects of bedding systems selected by manual muscle testing on sleep-related respiratory disturbances [J] .Applied Ergonomics, 2008,39(2)：261-270.

[6]Haex B. Back and bed: Ergonomic Aspects of Sleeping CRC Press, Boca Raton,FL, .

[7]Hildebrandt V H, Back pain in the working population: prevalence rates in Dutch trades and professions [J]. Ergonomics, 1995, 38.

[8]Lee H, Park S. Quantitative effects of mattress type on sleep quality through polysomnography and skin temperature [J]. Industrial Ergonomics, 2006, 36:934-949.

[9]Jacobson B H,Wallace T J, Smith D B, et al. Grouped comparisons of sleep quality for new and personal bedding systems [J]. Applied Ergonomics, 2007,39.

[10]Bader.GQ Engdal S. The influence of bed firmness on sleep quality [J]. Applied Ergonomics, ,31.

[11]BUCKXEP, FERN ANDES A. Mattress evaluation-assessment of a cont act pres sure,comfort and discomfort [J]. Applied Ergonomics, 1998,29(1)。

[12]DE VOCHTAJW, WILDERB D Q BANDST RABER. Biomechanical evaluation of our different mattresses [J]. Applied Ergonomics,2006,37(3)。

[13]Allyson Tenney.Technical Rationale for the Standard for the Flammability (Open Flame) of Mattress Sets and Responses to Related Public Comments[J].Engineering Sciences,2006(6)。

[14]Alihankaa J,Vaahtorantaa K. A static charge sensitive bed:A new method for recording body movements during sleep Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology[J]. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics,1979,46 (6)。

[15]Slater K. Human comfort[M], Spring.eld. IL,1985.

[16]Leea H, Park S- Quantitative effects of mattress types(comfortable vs uncomfortable)on sleep quality through polysomnography and skin temperature[J]. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 2006,36(11)。

[17] CPSC 16 CFR Part 1633,Standard for the Flammability (Open Flame) of Mattress Sets; Final Rule. Consumer Product Safety Commission[S]. March 15,2006.

[18] Memorandum from Allyson Tenney, ES,to Margaret Neily, Engineering Sciences. Technical Rationale for the Standard for the Flammability (Open Flame) of Mattress Sets and Responses to Related Public Comments[R]. January 6,2006.

1.毕业论文格式

2.毕业论文正文要求格式

3.修改毕业论文标题格式

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5.毕业论文封面格式要求

6.标准毕业论文排版格式

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篇8：毕业设计外文翻译

毕业设计外文翻译

外文原文

Overview of JSP Technology

Benefits of JSP

JSP pages are translated into servlets. So, fundamentally, any task JSP pages can perform could also be accomplished by servlets. However, this underlying equivalence does not mean that servlets and JSP pages are equally appropriate in all scenarios. The issue is not the power of the technology, it is the convenience, productivity, and maintainability of one or the other. After all, anything you can do on a particular computer platform in the Java programming language you could also do in assembly language. But it still matters which you choose.

JSP provides the following benefits over servlets alone:

• It is easier to write and maintain the HTML. Your static code is ordinary HTML: no extra backslashes, no double quotes, and no lurking Java syntax.

• You can use standard Web-site development tools. Even HTML tools that know nothing about JSP can be used because they simply ignore the JSP tags.

• You can divide up your development team. The Java programmers can work on the dynamic code. The Web developers can concentrate on the presentation layer. On large projects, this division is very important. Depending on the size of your team and the complexity of your project, you can enforce a weaker or stronger separation between the static HTML and the dynamic content.

Now, this discussion is not to say that you should stop using servlets and use only JSP instead. By no means. Almost all projects will use both. For some requests in your project, you will use servlets. For others, you will use JSP. For still others, you will combine them with the MVC architecture . You want the appropriate tool for the job, and servlets, by themselves, do not complete your toolkit.

Advantages of JSP Over Competing Technologies

A number of years ago, Marty was invited to attend a small 20-person industry roundtable discussion on software technology. Sitting in the seat next to Marty was James Gosling, inventor of the Java programming language. Sitting several seats away was a high-level manager from a very large software company in Redmond, Washington. During the discussion, the moderator brought up the subject of Jini, which at that time was a new Java technology. The moderator asked the manager what he thought of it, and the manager responded that it was too early to tell, but that it seemed to be an excellent idea. He went on to say that they would keep an eye on it, and if it seemed to be catching on, they would follow his company's usual “embrace and extend” strategy. At this point, Gosling lightheartedly interjected “You mean disgrace and distend.”

Now, the grievance that Gosling was airing was that he felt that this company would take technology from other companies and suborn it for their own purposes. But guess what? The shoe is on the other foot here. The Java community did not invent the idea of designing pages as a mixture of static HTML and dynamic code marked with special tags. For example, ColdFusion did it years earlier. Even ASP (a product from the very software company of the aforementioned manager) popularized this approach before JSP came along and decided to jump on the bandwagon. In fact, JSP not only adopted the general idea, it even used many of the same special tags as ASP did.

So, the question becomes: why use JSP instead of one of these other technologies? Our first response is that we are not arguing that everyone should. Several of those other technologies are quite good and are reasonable options in some situations. In other situations, however, JSP is clearly better. Here are a few of the reasons.

Versus .NET and Active Server Pages (ASP)

.NET is well-designed technology from Microsoft. ASP.NET is the part that directly competes with servlets and JSP. The advantages of JSP are twofold.

First, JSP is portable to multiple operating systems and Web servers; you aren't locked into deploying on Windows and IIS. Although the core .NET platform runs on a few non-Windows platforms, the ASP part does not. You cannot expect to deploy serious ASP.NET applications on multiple servers and operating systems. For some applications, this difference does not matter. For others, it matters greatly.

Second, for some applications the choice of the underlying language matters greatly. For example, although .NET's C# language is very well designed and is similar to Java, fewer programmers are familiar with either the core C# syntax or the many auxiliary libraries. In addition, many developers still use the original version of ASP. With this version, JSP has a clear advantage for the dynamic code. With JSP, the dynamic part is written in Java, not VBScript or another ASP-specific language, so JSP is more powerful and better suited to complex applications that require reusable components.

You could make the same argument when comparing JSP to the previous version of ColdFusion; with JSP you can use Java for the “real code” and are not tied to a particular server product. However, the current release of ColdFusion is within the context of a J2EE server, allowing developers to easily mix ColdFusion and servlet/JSP code.

Versus PHP

PHP (a recursive acronym for “PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor”) is a free, open-source, HTML-embedded scripting language that is somewhat similar to both ASP and JSP. One advantage of JSP is that the dynamic part is written in Java, which already has an extensive API for networking, database access, distributed objects, and the like, whereas PHP requires learning an entirely new, less widely used language. A second advantage is that JSP is much more widely supported by tool and server vendors than is PHP.

Versus Pure Servlets

JSP doesn't provide any capabilities that couldn't, in principle, be accomplished with servlets. In fact, JSP documents are automatically translated into servlets behind the scenes. But it is more convenient to write (and to modify!) regular HTML than to use a zillion println statements to generate the HTML. Plus, by separating the presentation from the content, you can put different people on different tasks: your Web page design experts can build the HTML by using familiar tools and either leave places for your servlet programmers to insert the dynamic content or invoke the dynamic content indirectly by means of XML tags.

Does this mean that you can just learn JSP and forget about servlets? Absolutely not! JSP developers need to know servlets for four reasons:

1. JSP pages get translated into servlets. You can't understand how JSP works without understanding servlets.

2. JSP consists of static HTML, special-purpose JSP tags, and Java code. What kind of Java code? Servlet code! You can't write that code if you don't understand servlet programming.

3. Some tasks are better accomplished by servlets than by JSP. JSP is good at generating pages that consist of large sections of fairly well structured HTML or other character data. Servlets are better for generating binary data, building pages with highly variable structure, and performing tasks (such as redirection) that involve little or no output.

4. Some tasks are better accomplished by a combination of servlets and JSP than by either servlets or JSP alone.

Versus JavaScript

JavaScript, which is completely distinct from the Java programming language, is normally used to dynamically generate HTML on the client, building parts of the Web page as the browser loads the document. This is a useful capability and does not normally overlap with the capabilities of JSP (which runs only on the server). JSP pages still include SCRIPT tags for JavaScript, just as normal HTML pages do. In fact, JSP can even be used to dynamically generate the JavaScript that will be sent to the client. So, JavaScript is not a competing technology; it is a complementary one.

It is also possible to use JavaScript on the server, most notably on Sun ONE (formerly iPlanet), IIS, and BroadVision servers. However, Java is more powerful, flexible, reliable, and portable.

Versus WebMacro or Velocity

JSP is by no means perfect. Many people have pointed out features that could be improved. This is a good thing, and one of the advantages of JSP is that the specification is controlled by a community that draws from many different companies. So, the technology can incorporate improvements in successive releases.

However, some groups have developed alternative Java-based technologies to try to address these deficiencies. This, in our judgment, is a mistake. Using a third-party tool like Apache Struts that augments JSP and servlet technology is a good idea when that tool adds sufficient benefit to compensate for the additional complexity. But using a nonstandard tool that tries to replace JSP is a bad idea. When choosing a technology, you need to weigh many factors: standardization, portability, integration, industry support, and technical features. The arguments for JSP alternatives have focused almost exclusively on the technical features part. But portability, standardization, and integration are also very important. For example, the servlet and JSP specifications define a standard directory structure for Web applications and provide standard files (.war files) for deploying Web applications. All JSP-compatible servers must support these standards. Filters can be set up to apply to any number of servlets or JSP pages, but not to nonstandard resources. The same goes for Web application security settings.

Besides, the tremendous industry support for JSP and servlet technology results in improvements that mitigate many of the criticisms of JSP. For example, the JSP Standard Tag Library and the JSP 2.0 expression language address two of the most well-founded criticisms: the lack of good iteration constructs and the difficulty of accessing dynamic results without using either explicit Java code or verbose jsp:useBean elements.

10.4 Misconceptions About JSP

Forgetting JSP Is Server-Side Technology

Here are some typical questions Marty has received (most of them repeatedly).

• Our server is running JDK 1.4. So, how do I put a Swing component in a JSP page?

• How do I put an image into a JSP page? I do not know the proper Java I/O commands to read image files.

• Since Tomcat does not support JavaScript, how do I make images that are highlighted when the user moves the mouse over them?

• Our clients use older browsers that do not understand JSP. What should we do?

• When our clients use “View Source” in a browser, how can I prevent them from seeing the JSP tags?

All of these questions are based upon the assumption that browsers know something about the server-side process. But they do not. Thus:

• For putting applets with Swing components into Web pages, what matters is the browser's Java version―the server's version is irrelevant. If the browser supports the Java 2 platform, you use the normal APPLET (or Java plug-in) tag and would do so even if you were using non-Java technology on the server.

• You do not need Java I/O to read image files; you just put the image in the directory for Web resources (i.e., two levels up from WEB-INF/classes) and output a normal IMG tag.

• You create images that change under the mouse by using client-side JavaScript, referenced with the SCRIPT tag; this does not change just because the server is using JSP.

• Browsers do not “support” JSP at all―they merely see the output of the JSP page. So, make sure your JSP outputs HTML compatible with the browser, just as you would do with static HTML pages.

• And, of course you need not do anything to prevent clients from seeing JSP tags; those tags are processed on the server and are not part of the output that is sent to the client.

Confusing Translation Time with Request Time

A JSP page is converted into a servlet. The servlet is compiled, loaded into the server's memory, initialized, and executed. But which step happens when? To answer that question, remember two points:

• The JSP page is translated into a servlet and compiled only the first time it is accessed after having been modified.

• Loading into memory, initialization, and execution follow the normal rules for servlets.

Table 1 gives some common scenarios and tells whether or not each step occurs in that scenario. The most frequently misunderstood entries are highlighted. When referring to the table, note that servlets resulting from JSP pages use the _jspService method (called for both GET and POST requests), not doGet or doPost. Also, for initialization, they use the jspInit method, not the init method.

Table 1. JSP Operations in Various Scenarios

JSP page translated into servlet Servlet compiled Servlet loaded into server's memory jspInit called _jspService called

Page first written

Request 1 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Request 2 No No No No Yes

Server restarted

Request 3 No No Yes Yes Yes

Request 4 No No No No Yes

Page modified

Request 5 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Request 6 No No No No Yes

中文翻译

JSP技术概述

一、JSP的好处

JSP页面最终会转换成servler。因而，从根本上，JSP页面能够执行的任何任务都可以用servler来完成。然而，这种底层的等同性并不意味着servler和JSP页面对于所有的情况都等同适用。问题不在于技术的能力，而是二者在便利性、生产率和可维护性上的不同。毕竟，在特定平台上能够用Java编程语言完成的事情，同样可以用汇编语言来完成，但是选择哪种语言依旧十分重要。

和单独使用servler相比，JSP提供下述好处：

 JSP中HTML的编写与维护更为简单。JSP中可以使用常规的HTML：没有额外的反斜杠，没有额外的双引号，也没有暗含的Java语法。

 能够使用标准的网站开发工具。即使对那些对JSP一无所知的HTML工具，我们也可以使用，因为它们会忽略JSP标签（JSP tags）。

 可以对开发团队进行划分。Java程序员可以致力于动态代码。Web开发人员可以将经理集中在表示层（presentation layer）上。对于大型的项目，这种划分极为重要。依据开发团队的大小，及项目的复杂程度，可以对静态HTML和动态内容进行弱分离（weaker separation）和强分离（stronger separation）。

在此，这个讨论并不是让您停止使用servlets，只使用JSP。几乎所有的项目都会同时用到这两种技术。针对项目中的某些请求，您可能会在MVC构架下组合使用这两项技术。我们总是希望用适当的工具完成相对应的工作，仅仅是servlet并不能填满您的工具箱。

二、JSP相对于竞争技术的优势

许多年前，Marty受到邀请,参加一个有关软件技术的小型(20个人)研讨会.做在Marty旁边的人是James Gosling--- Java编程语言的发明者。隔几个位置,是来自华盛顿一家大型软件公司的高级经理。在讨论过程中,研讨会的主席提出了Jini的议题,这在当时是一项新的Java技术.主席向该经理询问他的想法.他继续说,他们会持续关注这项技术,如果这项技术变得流行起来,他们会遵循公司的“接受并扩充(embrace and extend)”的策略.此时, Gosling随意地插话说“你的意思其实就是不接受且不扩充(disgrace and distend)。”

在此, Gosling的抱怨显示出，他感到这个公司会从其他公司那里拿走技术,用于他们自己的目的.但你猜这次怎么样?这次鞋子穿在了另一只脚上。Java社团没有发明这一思想----将页面设计成由静态HTML和用特殊标签标记的动态代码混合组成.。ColdFusion多年前就已经这样做了。甚至ASP(来自于前述经理所在公司的一项产品)都在JSP出现之前推广了这种方式。实际上,JSP不只采用了这种通用概念,它甚至使用许多和ASP相同的特殊标签。

因此,问题变成:为什么使用JSP,而不使用其他技术呢?我们的第一反应是我们不是在争论所有的人应该做什么。其他这些技术中,有一些也很不错,在某些情况下也的确是合情合理的选择.然而,在其他情形中,JSP明显要更好一些。下面给出几个理由。

与.NET和Active Server Pages (ASP)相比

.NET是Microsoft精心设计的一项技术。ASP.NET是与servlets和JSP直接竞争的技术。JSP的优势体现在两个方面。

首先,JSP可以移植到多种操作系统和Web服务器,您不必仅仅局限于部署在Windows 和IIS上尽管核心.NET平台可以在好几种非Windows平台上运行，但ASP这一部分不可以。您不能期望可以将重要的ASP.NET应用部署到多种服务器和操作系统。对于某些应用，这种差异没有什么影响。但有些应用，这种差异却非常重要。

其次，对于某些应用，底层语言的选择至关重要。例如，尽管.NET的C#语言设计优良，且和Java类似，但熟悉核心C#语法和众多工具库的程序员很少。此外,许多开发者依旧使用最初版本的ASP。相对于这个版本,JSP在动态代码方面拥有明显的优势。使用JSP,动态部分是用Java编写的,而非VBScript过其他ASP专有的语言,因此JSP更为强劲,更适合于要求组件重用的复杂应用。

当将JSP与之前版本的ColdFusion对比时，您可能会得到相同的结论。应用JSP，您可以使用Java编写“真正的代码”，不必依赖于特定的服务器产品。然而，当前版本的ColdFusion满足J2EE服务器的环境，允许开发者容易的混合使用ColdFusion和Servlet/JSP代码。

与PHP相比

PHP（“PHP：Hypertext Preprocessor”的递归字母缩写词）是免费的、开放源代码的、HTML嵌入其中的脚本语言，与ASP和JSP都有某种程度的类似。JSP的一项优势是动态部分用Java编写，而Java已经在联网、数据库访问、分布式对象等方面拥有广泛的API，而PHP需要学习全新的、应用相对广泛的语言。JSP的第二项优势是，和PHP相比，JSP拥有极为广泛的工具和服务器提供商的支持。

与纯Servlet相比

原则上，JSP并没有提供Servlet不能完成的功能。实际上，JSP文档在后台被自动转换成Servlet。但是编写（和修改）常规的HTML，要比无数println语句生成HTML要方便得多。另外，通过将表示与内容分离，可以为不同的人分配不同的任务：网页设计人员使用熟悉的工具构建HTML，要么为Servlet程序员留出空间插入动态内容，要么通过XML标签间接调用动态内容。

这是否表示您只可以学习JSP，将Servlet丢到一边呢？当然不是！由于以下4种原因，JSP开发人员需要了解Servlet：

（1）JSP页面会转换成Servlet。不了解Servlet就无法知道JSP如何工作。

（2）JSP由静态HTML、专用的JSP标签和Java代码组成。哪种类型的Java代码呢？当然是Servlet代码！如果不了解Servlet编程，那么就无法编写这种代码。

（3）一些任务用Servlet完成比用JSP来完成要好。JSP擅长生成由大量组织有序的结构化HTML或其他字符数据组成的页面。Servlet擅长生成二进制数据，构建结构多样的页面，以及执行输出很少或者没有输出的任务（比如重定向）。

（4）有些任务更适合于组合使用Servlet和JSP来完成，而非单独使用Servlet或JSP。

与JavaScript相比

JavaScript和Java编程语言完全是两码事，前者一般用于在客户端动态生成HTML，在浏览器载入文档时构建网页的部分内容。这是一项有用的功能，一般与JSP的功能（只在服务器端运行）并不发生重叠。和常规HTML页面一样，JSP页面依旧可以包括用于JavaScript的SCRIPT标签。实际上，JSP甚至能够用来动态生成发送到客户端的JavaScript。因此，JavaScript不是一项竞争技术，它是一项补充技术。

JavaScript也可以用在服务器端，最因人注意的是SUN ONE（以前的iPlanet）、IIS和BroadVision服务器。然而，Java更为强大灵活、可靠且可移植。

与WebMacro和Velocity相比

JSP决非完美。许多人都曾指出过JSP中能够改进的'功能。这是一件好事，JSP的优势之一是该规范由许多不同公司组成的社团控制。因此，在后续版本中，这项技术能够得到协调的改进。

但是，一些组织已经开发出了基于Java的替代技术，试图弥补这些不足。据我们的判断，这样做是错误的。使用扩充JSP和Servlet技术的第三方工具，如Apache Structs，是一种很好的思路，只要该工具带来的好处能够补偿工具带来的额外复杂性。但是，试图使用非标准的工具代替JSP则不理想。在选择一项技术时，需要权衡许多方面的因素：标准化、可移植性、集成性、行业支持和技术特性。对于JSP替代技术的争论几乎只是集中在技术特性上，而可移植性、标准化和集成性也十分重要。例如，Servlet和JSP规范为Web应用定义了一个标准的目录结构，并提供用于部署Web应用的标准文件（.war文件）。所有JSP兼容的服务器必须支持这些标准。我们可以建立过滤器作用到任意树木的Servlet和JSP页面上，但不能用于非标准资源。Web应用安全设置也同样如此。

此外，业界对JSP和Servlet技术的巨大支持使得这两项技术都有了巨大的进步，从而减轻了对JSP的许多批评。例如，JSP标准标签库和JSP 2.0表达式语言解决了两种最广泛的批评：缺乏良好的迭代结构；不使用显式的Java代码或冗长的jsp:useBean元素难以访问动态结果。

三、对JSP的误解

忘记JSP技术是服务器端技术

下面是Marty收到的一些典型问题（大部分问题不止一次的出现）。

 我们的服务器正在运行JDK1.4。我如何将Swing组件用到JSP页面中呢？

 我如何将图像放到JSP页面中？我不知道读取图像文件应该使用哪些Java I/O命令。

 Tomcat不支持JavaScript，当用户在图像上移动鼠标时，我如何使图像突出显示呢？

 我们的客户使用不理解JSP的旧浏览器。我应该怎么做？

 当我们的客户在浏览器中使用“View Source”（查看源代码）时，如何阻止他们看到JSP标签？

所有这些问题都基于浏览器对服务器端的过程在有所了解的假定之上。但事实上浏览器并不了解服务器端的过程。因此：

 如果要将使用Swing组件的applet放到网页中，重要的是浏览器的Java版本，和服务器的Java版本无关。如果浏览器支持Java 2平台，您可以使用正常的APPLET（或Java插件）标签，即使在服务器上使用了非Java技术也须如此。

 您不需要Java I/O来读取图像文件，您只需将图像放在存储Web资源的目录中（即WEB-INF/classes向上两级的目录），并输出一个正常的IMG标签。

 您应该用SCRIPT标签，使用客户端JavaScript创建在鼠标下会更改的图像，这不会由于服务器使用JSP而改变。

 浏览器根本不“支持”JSP----它们看到的只是JSP页面的输出。因此，如同对待静态HTML页面一样，只需确保JSP输出的HTML与浏览器兼容。

 当然，您不需要采取什么措施来阻止客户看到JSP标签，这些标签在服务器上进行处理，发送给客户的输出中并不出现。

混淆转换期间和请求期间

JSP页面需要转换成servlet。Servlet在编译后，载入到服务器的内容中，初始化并执行。但是每一步发生在什么时候呢？要回答这个问题，要记住以下两点：

 JSP页面仅在修改后第一次被访问时，才会被转换成servlet并进行编译；

 载入到内存中、初始化和执行遵循servlet的一般规则。

表1列出一些常见的情形，讲述在该种情况下每一步是否发生。最常被误解的项已经突出标示出来。在参考该表时，要注意，由JSP页面生成的servlet使用_jspService方法（GET和POST请求都调用该函数），不是doGet或doPost方法。同样，对于初始化，它们使用jspInit方法，而非init方法。

表1 各种情况下的JSP操作

将JSP 页面转换成servlet 编译Servlet  将Servlet 载入到服务器内存中 调用jspInit  调用_jspService

页面初次创建

请求 1 有 有 有 有 有

请求 2 无 无 无 无 有

服务器重启后

请求3 无 无 有 有 有

请求 4 无 无 无 无 有

页面修改后

请求 5 有 有 有 有 有

请求 6 无 无 无 无 有

篇9：外文参考文献格式标准

期刊作者.题名[J].刊名，出版年，卷(期)：起止页码

专著作者.书名[M].版本(第一版不著录).出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码

论文集作者.题名[C].编者.论文集名.出版地：出版者，出版年.

起止页码

学位论文作者.题名[D].保存地点：保存单位，年份

专利文献题名[P].国别，专利文献种类，专利号.出版日期

标准标准编号，标准名称[S]

报纸作者.题名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)

报告作者.题名[R].保存地点：年份

电子文献作者.题名[电子文献及载体类型标识].文献出处，日期

文献类型及其标识

根据GB3469 规定

①期刊[J]

②专著[M]

③论文集[C]

④学位论文[D]

⑤专利[P]

⑥标准[S]

⑦报纸[N]

⑧技术报告[R]

电子文献载体类型用双字母标识，例如：

①磁带[MT]

②磁盘[DK]

③光盘[CD]

④联机网络[OL]

①联机网上数据库[DB/OL]

②磁带数据库[DB/MT]

③光盘图书[M/CD]

④磁盘软件[CP/DK]

⑤网上期刊[J/OL]

⑥网上电子公告[EB/OL]

期刊论文

[1]周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323

[2]Dobbs J M, Wong J M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polor coselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56

[3]刘仲能，金文清.合成医药中间体4-甲基咪唑的研究[J].精细化工，

(2)：103-105

[ 4 ] Mesquita A C, Mori M N, Vieira J M, et al . Vinyl acetatepolymerization by ionizing radiation[J].Radiation Physics and Chemistry,, 63:465

专著

[1]蒋挺大.亮聚糖[M].北京：化学工业出版社，.127

[2]Kortun G. Reflectance Spectroscopy[M]. New York: Spring-Verlag,1969

论文集

[1]郭宏，王熊，刘宗林.膜分离技术在大豆分离蛋白生产中综合利用的

研究[C].余立新.第三届全国膜和膜过程学术报告会议论文集.北京：高教出版社，.421-425

[2]Eiben A E, vander Hauw J K.Solving 3-SAT with adaptive geneticalgorithms [C].Proc 4th IEEE ConfEvolutionary Computation.Piscataway:

IEEE Press, .81-86

学位论文

[1]陈金梅.氟石膏生产早强快硬水泥的试验研究(D).西安：西安建筑科学大学，

[ 2 ] Chrisstoffels L A J . Carrier-facilitated transport as a

mechanistic tool in supramolecular chemistry[D].The Netherland：TwenteUniversity.1988

专利文献

[1]Hasegawa, Toshiyuki, Yoshida,et al.Paper Coating composition[P].EP 0634524.1995-01-18

[ 2 ] 仲前昌夫， 佐藤寿昭. 感光性树脂[ P ]. 日本， 特开平

[3]Yamaguchi K, Hayashi A. Plant growth promotor and productionthereof [P].Jpn, Jp1290606.1999-11-22

[4]厦门大学.二烷氨基乙醇羧酸酯的制备方法[P].中国发明专利，

CN1073429.1993-06-23

技术标准文献

[1]ISO 1210-1982，塑料 小试样接触火焰法测定塑料燃烧性[S]

[2]GB 2410-80，透明塑料透光率及雾度实验方法[S]

报纸

[1]陈志平.减灾设计研究新动态[N].科技日报，1997-12-12(5)

报告

[1]中国机械工程学会.密相气力输送技术[R].北京：

电子文献

[1]万锦柔.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993)[DB/CD].北京：中国百科全书出版社，1996

篇10：外文参考文献格式标准

英文文献采用 APA格式 ：

单一作者著作的书籍：

姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.

Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.

两位作者以上合著的书籍：

姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社. Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press.

文集中的文章：

Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42C64). London: OtherWorld Books.

期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：

Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34C37.

期刊中的文章(连续页码)：

姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.

Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66C146.

月刊杂志中的文章：

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

1.中英文论文参考文献标准格式(最新)

2.外文参考文献标准格式

3.外文参考文献的标准格式

4.英文参考文献标准格式

5.参考文献格式国家标准

6.英语论文参考文献格式

7.毕业论文外文文献格式要求

8.英语毕业论文参考文献标准格式

9.学术论文参考文献格式及要求

篇11：红楼梦论文外文参考文献

《红楼梦》复杂的版本问题历来为学界所关注。20世纪代以来，陆续发现的抄本刻本就达13种之多，且彼此间存在相当数量的异文。在何本为最好的版本这一问题上，学界的评价标准呈现多元化特征。其中，从校勘学的研究视角，以是否贴近曹雪芹原笔原意，是否“真本”作为“优本”评判标准的观点占主流，以文字的艺术效果作为评判标准的观点占少数。我们在这里整理了一些红楼梦论文外文参考文献，希望对你有用。

1、陆超逸。A Contrastive Study of the Translation of Cultural-Specific Content in Hongloumeng[J]. 海外英语。 （05）

2、王丽鸽。On English Translation of Characters' Names of Two English Versions of A Dream of Red Mansions[J]. 海外英语。 2019（16）

3、李淑曼。浅析《红楼梦》第三回中异化归化译法现象[J]. 北方文学。 2019（18）

4、余丽娟。The Translation of the Fuzzy Numerals in A Dream of Red Mansions[J]. 教师。 2019（09）

5、俞心瑶。Translations of Unreliable Narrative in Hongloumeng:A Comparative Study on A Dream of Red Mansions and The Story of the Stone[J]. 疯狂英语（理论版）。 2019（02）

6、高林芝。On the English Translation of Portrait Description in the Two Versions of A Dream of Red Mansions from the Perspective of Diction[J]. 校园英语。 2019（13）

7、张曦。On the Translation of Idioms in A Dream of Red Mansions[J]. 台声。新视角。 2019（04）

8、TANG XUEGEN ZHU AH ZHU.A Beautiful Screen Tells a Classic Story[J]. Women of China. （09）

9、潘素贞。A Tentative Study of Metaphors in the Translation of A Dream of Red Mansions from Pragmatic Perspective[J]. 海外英语。 2019（08）

10、THE LEGEND LIVES ON……[J]. China Today. 2019（06）

11、Liu Da,Chen Baocui,Yue Yanfeng.Restraint of Values Predicament on Development of Culture Schools in America[J]. 学术界。 2019（01）

12、杨勇。网络流行语衍生、传播的理据和方向[J]. 学术界。 2019（02）

13、Sui Xiaobing,Cheng Lulu.The Empirical Study of Web-based Teacher's Ecological Niche[J]. 学术界。 2019（05）

14、侯明华。近代欧洲的语言与共同体--读《语言的文化史》[J]. 学术界。 2019（06）

15、胡妤。汉语诗词中隐性美的传递[J]. 学术界。 2019（07）

16、Qin Zhongshu.On the Initiative of Chinese Culture “Going Out”[J]. 学术界。 2019（07）

17、Ouyang Yiyi.Research on the Relationship between Fiscal Expenditure and Educational Equity[J]. 学术界。 2019（07）

18、Chen Chihua.Reflections on the Ecological Situations and Preservation of Tujia Language As An Endangered Language[J]. 学术界。 2019（08）

19、Zhang Junmin.Exploringthe Cultivation of Intercultural Competence in Foreign Language Education[J]. 学术界。 2019（08）

20、李雅芳。魔幻小说翻译对奈达功能对等理论的体现[J]. 河南科技。

21、LI Na,HE Ling-jing.A Study on Translation of University Inspirational Speech In Light of Skopos Theory:A Case Study of 2019 American Commencement Speech[J]. 海外英语。 2019（02）

22、WAN Yang-ming.A Brief Analysis on the Causes of the Tragic Ending and the Social Significance of King Lear[J]. 海外英语。 2019（02）

23、WANG Wei.Pedagogical Translation and Senior English Language Teaching[J]. 海外英语。 2019（02）

24、MA Qin,CHENG Ling.Exploring into Cultural Obstacles in TCM Terms Translation[J]. 海外英语。 2019（05）

25、ZHANG Yu.Cultural Context in Literary Translation-from the Perspective of Explanatory Function and Restrictive Function[J]. 海外英语。 2019（05）

26、ZHAO Mi.On Translation of Business English from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. 海外英语。 2019（05）

27、刘会然，王繁。社会学视角下对翻译机构的重解[J]. 海外英语。 2019（04）

28、JIAN Jia.On the Problems and Techniques in English-Chinese Translation--A Discussion about the Translation of“Green Crisis”[J]. 海外英语。 2019（04）

29、FAN Yuan,YANG Jing.On Model of Translation Beginners' Mechanism of Mental Translation[J]. 海外英语。 2019（06）

30、Yong Guo.Brief Analysis on Cultural Losses in the English Version of A Dream in Red Mansions by David Hawkes--Taking the Panci of Jia Yingchun as an Example[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Education Research and Reform（ERR 2019 V8）[C]. 2019

31、Qu Yingmei,Gao Yihang,Wang Guohua.A Contrastive Study on Traditional Chinese Tea Culture Translations[A]. Proceedings of the Fourth Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language,Literature and Translation[C]. 2019

32、Wang Xibao,Wang Zhuojue.Research on English Translation of Peking Opera Masterpiece: You Sisters in Red Mansions[A]. Proceedings of the 2019 Northeast Asia International Symposium on Linguistics,Literature and Teaching（NALLTS Volume A）[C]. 2019

33、Jing Wang,Jiafeng Liu.Study on Choice of Translation Strategies for Character Name with Pun Meaning from Delabastita's Theory Taking English Version of A Dream of Red Mansions as an Example[A]. Proceedings of the 2019 3rd International Conference on Education, Language, Art and Inter-cultural Communication（ICELAIC 2019）[C]. 2019

34、Mei-xia LI.A Quantitative and Qualitative Contrastive Study on English and Chinese Logical Resultative Formulae:A Parallel Corpus-Based Approach[A]. Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Advanced Education Technology and Management Science（AETMS 2019）[C]. 2019

35、Zhangjun Lian,Zequan Liu.A Parallel Corpora-Based Study of E motion Words and its Translation in Hong Lou Meng-From the Perspective of Affect in Appraisal Systems[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Sports Medicine and Sports Management（SMSM 2019 V1）[C]. 2019

36、Zhang Shidong,Peng Shuang.The Confusion and Solution of Won & Done Song in Dream of Red Mansions[A]. Proceedings of the Fourth Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language,Literature and Translation[C]. 2019

37、Hua Feng.On the Artistic Charm in “A Dream of Red Mansions”[A]. 2019 International Conference on Arts, Design and Contemporary Education （ICADCE 2019） Part A[C]. 2019

38、Wang Guo Feng.Politeness Phenomena in Ancient China:An Analysis of A Dream of Red Mansions[A]. Proceedings of the First Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language,Literature and Translation[C]. 2019

39、Xiaojuan Lu.Unfairness Embodied in the Institution of Marriage in Ancient China --- Take a Dream of Red Mansions as an Example[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Education Reform and Management Innovation（ERMI 2019） Volume 4[C]. 2019

40、Dan Zhang.A Study of Complaints in A Dream of Red Mansions[A]. Proceedings of 2019 4th International Conference on Education and Education Management（EEM 2019 V66）[C]. 2019

41、Lu Xiaojuan.Interpretation of the Function of the Space Narrative in a Dream in Red Mansions--Taking Granny Liu's Second Visit to Grand View Garden for Example[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Education Reform and Management Innovation（ERMI 2019） Volume 4[C]. 2019

42、Changmin Wang.Analysis on Characteristics of Network Literature Reading by Teenager[A]. Proceedings of the 2019 2nd International Conference: Arts, Design and Contemporary Education （ICADCE 2019）[C]. 2019

43、Sry Mulya Kurniati.Using Abridged Local Folklores to Develop Students' Reading Achievement and Moral Value[A]. The proceedings of 2019 International Conference on World Islamic Studies[C]. 2019

44、Yan Guo,Haolan Zhang,Chaoyi Pang.EEG-based mild depression detection using multi-objective particle swarm optimization[A]. 第29届中国控制与决策会议论文集（4）[C]. 2019

45、Zhi-huan ZHANG,Long-hua MA,Chao HU.Virtual Simulation Clouds Laboratory for the MOOC Experimental Teaching Platform[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Education, Management and Systems Engineering（EMSE 2019）[C]. 2019

46、Yan Guo,Chao Dong.A novel Intelligent Credit Scoring Method using MOPSO[A]. 第29届中国控制与决策会议论文集（5）[C]. 2019

47、Yong Zhu,Linjun Sun,Jili Tao.Curriculum Reform of Communication Principle Experiment Based on Theory of Multiple Intelligence[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Education and Education Management（EEM 2019 V3）[C]. 2019

48、Yihua Liu,Guangzhou Zhao.Course Construction of Automation Specialty for Applied technical undergraduate in China's Higher Education Reform[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Education,Social Science,Management and Sports（ICESSMS 2019）[C]. 2019

49、Bao Jianyu,Zhang Shan.Wireless LED Dimming Control Based on WiFi[A]. Proceedings of 2019 6th International Conference on Information Engineering for Mechanics and Materials（ICIMM 2019）[C]. 2019

50、Guanghui Song,Xiaogang Jin,Genlang Chen,Yan Nie.Multi-label Image Ranking based on Deep Convolutional Features[A]. Proceedings of 2019 6th International Conference on Information Engineering for Mechanics and Materials（ICIMM 2019）[C]. 2019

51、WANG Xinguang,TAO Jili,ZHANG Ridong.Fuzzy energy management control for battery/ultra-capacitor hybrid electric vehicles[A]. 第28届中国控制与决策会议论文集（下）[C]. 2019

52、Liyong Hu,Di Zheng,Feng Qiao,Jianming Zhan,Junhua Chen.Research on Smart Cast for Fish Cage Aquaculture based on image processing[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd Workshop on Advanced Research and Technology in Industry Applications（WARTIA 2019）[C]. 2019

53、Yang,Qingqing,Fan,Shengli,Wang,Lang,Wang,Yigang.Road Detection by RANSAC on Randomly Sampled Patches with Slanted Plane Prior[A]. 2019 IEEE 13th International Conference on Signal Processing Proceedings（ICSP2019）[C]. 2019

54、Fangming Zhang,Changhuai Lv,Jie Yang,Caiyu Zhang,Guisen Li,Licheng Fu.Path Planning Methods for Auto-Guided Rice-Transplanters[A]. Computer and Computing Technologies in Agriculture IX-Proceedings of 9th IFIP WG 5.14 International Conference,CCTA2019,Part II[C]. 2019

55、Qiyu Liu,Longjin Lv.Solution for a Space-time Fractional Diffusion Equation[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Modelling, Simulation and Applied Mathematics（MSAM 2019）[C]. 2019

56、Jun QIU,Ying-dao LI,Chao HU.PMLSM Position Control Based on Energy Shaping Method[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Energy Engineering（ICESEE 2019）[C]. 2019

57、Ying-dao LI,Jun QIU,Ling-jian YE.Design of Adaptive Subspace Predictive Controller for Stable Operation[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Environmental Science and Energy Engineering（ICESEE 2019）[C]. 2019

58、Ping Yuan,Yanbin Liu.The Study on the Effect of University Faculties' Job Stress on Organizational Commitment[A]. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, Volume 72[C]. 2019

59、Yanbin Liu,Fanghui Ju,Zhiwei Yu,Chidi Hu.Exploratory Research on the Construction of Entrepreneurial Specialty in Universities-Typical Cases from Ningbo[A]. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, Volume 72[C]. 2019

60、Shaohui Huang,Longhua Ma,Miao Huang,Ming Xu,Hongye Su.Shield Attitude Control based on ANFIS[A]. 第28届中国过程控制会议（CPCC 2019）暨纪念中国过程控制会议30周年摘要集[C]. 2019

61、Zhihuan Zhang,Zhensheng You,Longhua Ma.Control and Stability Analysis of Bipedal Hybrid Robot Model Based on Bionics[A]. 第28届中国过程控制会议（CPCC 2019）暨纪念中国过程控制会议30周年摘要集[C]. 2019

62、Miao Huang,Xin Wang,Longhua Ma,Hongye Su.Nonlinear Adaptive Control using Multiple Models and Immersion & Invariance for a class of non-affine nonlinear systems[A]. 第28届中国过程控制会议（CPCC 2019）暨纪念中国过程控制会议30周年摘要集[C]. 2019

63、J.Q.LI,J.L.CHEN,X.Y.LI,X.L.MA.Effects of Al-5Ti-B-2RE on the microstructures and mechanical properties of Al-10Mg alloy[A]. Recent Trends in Materials and Mechanical Engineering Materials, Mechatronics and Automation PART2[C]. 2019

64、Hao Wang,Ruey （Kelvin） Cheu,Der-Horng Lee.A Study of Real Time Security Monitoring of Commercial Vehicles Using a Microscopic Traffic Simulation Model[A]. Recent Trends in Materials and Mechanical Engineering Materials, Mechatronics and Automation PART2[C]. 2019

65、Hao Wang,Ruey （Kelvin） Cheu,Der-Horng Lee.RFID Enabled Signal Priority Strategies for Bus Operations[A]. Proceedings of the International Conference on Recent Trends in Materials and Mechanical Engineering（ICRTMME 2019 Part 3）[C]. 2019

66、Wei Liu,Yiqun Weng.Research on Construction of Smart Financial Service System Based on Citizen IC Card[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Social Sciences and Society （ICSSS 2019 V1）[C]. 2019

67、Haina Sun.（2,1）-Total labelling of trees[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Computer Science（ICAMCS 2019 Part3）[C]. 2019

68、C.Y.Yu,R.J.Cheng,H.Q.Liu.The continuum model considering the drivers' anticipation effect[A]. Abstract of The 2019 International Conference on Advanced Materials, Structures and Mechanical Engineering[C]. 2019

69、Lu Liang-zhi,Sun Jia-ying,Yang Yi-fan,Jiang Ying-bo.A New Solidification Technology Of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash And Its Application In Asphalt Mixture[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Workshop on Materials Engineering and Computer Sciences （IWMECS 2019）[C]. 2019

70、Yihua Liu,Guangzhou Zhao.Research-driven Practice teaching Reform of Automation Professional of Engineering Colleges[A]. Proceedings of 2019 3rd International Conference on Education,Management,Arts,Economics and Social Science （ICEMAESS 2019）[C]. 2019

71、Jian-ning Lai,Yi-gang Wang,Sheng-li Fan.A Microscopic Image Sharpness Metric Based on the Local Binary Pattern（LBP）[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering and Technology for Manufacturing Growth（METMG 2019）[C]. 2019

72、Wenhu Wang,Chao Hu,Weixing Lin,Jianmeng Bao.Sensor Arrangement Optimization of Wearable Model in Magnetic Localization System[A]. Proceedings of 2019 2nd International Conference on Manufacturing Engineering and Technology for Manufacturing Growth（METMG 2019）[C]. 2019

73、Huamin Li.Analysis of Formation Mechanism of Revisit Intention: Data from East China[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Global Economy,Commerce and Service Science（GECSS 2019 V78）[C]. 2019

74、Qiao-Xing Li,Xing-Sen Li.The Method to Construct Elementary Dependent Function on Single Interval[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Advanced Materials and Computer Science（ICAMCS 2019 Part1）[C]. 2019

75、Genlang Chen,Shiting Wen,Jinqiu Yang,Guan Hui Song.Building an Experimental Platform for Cloud and Big Data Education[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Education Reform and Modern Management（ERMM 2019 V75）[C]. 2019

76、Xingsen Li,Min Wu,Wei Liu.Improvement on the Creative Thinking Capability of Undergraduates Using Basic-element Theory[A]. Proceedings of 2019 Fourth International Conference on Education and Sports Education（ESE 2019 V11）[C]. 2019

77、Jianyu Bao,Weibing Bao,Jie Gong.A PWM Multilevel Current-Source Inverter Used for Grid-Connected Wind Energy Conversion System[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Future Energy, Environment, and Materials（FEEM 2019 V16 （Part A））[C]. 2019

78、Genlang Chen,Jiuqiu Yang.The Analysis of University Curriculum Setting Based on KNIME[A]. Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Future Computer Supported Education（FCSE 2019 V2）[C]. 2019

79、Haina Sun,Jinghong Liu.（2, 1）-Total Labeling of Trees with Maximum Degree 4[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Solid State Devices and Materials Science（SSDMS 2019 V25）[C]. 2019

80、Shulin Li,Zhaohui Li,Yafei Wang,Xiao Ruan,Cunde Pan,Qiang Wang.Preliminary Study for the Allelopathic Effect of Water Extracts from Solidago Canadensis Leaves[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Materials Science and Chemical Engineering（MSCE 2019 V699）[C]. 2019

81、Liu Huaqing,Ye Caihong,Ge Hongxia,Yu Chenyan.A continuum model in traffic flow considering the jerk effect[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Informatics（AMEII 2019）[C]. 2019

82、Ping Yu,Feiqing Wu,Enjun Yu,Jiong Sun.Research on Electrical and Electronic Instructions Based on a Real-time Feedback System[A]. Proceedings of International Conference on Information Sciences,Machinery,Materials and Energy（ICISMME 2019）[C]. 2019

83、Fangming Zhang,Ximing Feng,Yuan Li,Xiuqin Rao,Di Cui.A Low-Cost Positioning System for Parallel Tracking Applications of Agricultural Vehicles by Using Kalman Filter[A]. 第五届国际计算机与计算技术在农业中的应用研讨会论文集第一部分[C]. 2019

84、Wen Liu,Xu Ding,Guohui Wang,Jiqiang Li.STUDY ON MOULD HEAT PENETRATION DEPTH FOR SEMI-SOLID NET SHAPE FORMING[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Symposium on Computer Science and Technology（ISCST'2019）[C]. 2019

85、Yan Wu,Yunting Tang.RESEARCH AND IMPLEMENTATION ON AUTOMATIC CHINESE AND CANTONESE SPELLING ERROR CORRECTION[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Symposium on Computer Science and Technology（ISCST'2019）[C]. 2019

86、Yunting Tang,Yan Wu.RESEARCH AND IMPLEMENTATION ON CHINESE WORD SEGMENTATION[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Symposium on Computer Science and Technology（ISCST'2019）[C]. 2019

87、Han Xianglan,Zhanggang,Liu Yangguang,Zhenghong.A GRID BASED HALL FOR WORKSHOP OF META-SYNTHETIC ENGINEERING[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Symposium on Computer Science and Technology（ISCST'2019）[C]. 2019

88、Jiajia Sun,Jili Tao,Lingong Li,Qinru Fan.Interest-oriented Practice Reform of Circuit Curriculum Group[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Convergence Information Technology（ICCIT 2019）[C]. 2019

89、XU Xian-Sheng,LIU Yan,LI Ye,XU Xu.Accuracy assessment of the Doppler frequency and pseudorange model based on GPS/LEO radio occultation[A]. 第六届中国卫星导航学术年会论文集-S01北斗/GNSS导航应用[C]. 2019

90、Fang-ming Zhang,Zhi-gang liu,Yuan Li,Beom-Soo Shin,Ru-jiang Shou.A row-following control method for auto-guided rice transplanters[A]. 2019中国农业机械学会国际学术年会论文集[C]. 2019

91、Haina Sun.Trees with 3,4 are not in maximum degree distance[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Neural Computing（FSNC 2019 V1）[C]. 2019

92、Haina Sun,Rongjun Cheng.The meshless reproducing kernel particle method for two-dimensional linear hyperbolic equations[A]. Future Materials Engineering and Industry Application（ICFMEIA 2019）[C]. 2019

93、Liu Pengfei,Tao Jili,Wang Xinguang.Decoupling ARX Time-space model based GPC for distributed parameter system[A]. 第三十四届中国控制会议论文集（A卷）[C]. 2019

94、Yiou Shao,Xin Yu,Huanda Lu.The Relativity Analysis between Summer Loads and Climatic Condition of Ningbo[A]. Electronics and Signal Processing （EEIC 2019 LNEE V1）[C]. 2019

95、Shengjian Zhang,Yingxian Zhao.Kinetics and Selectivity of Cyclohexane Pyrolysis[A]. Future Material Research and Industry Application（FMRIA 2019 Part 1）[C]. 2019

96、Shengjian Zhang,Yingxian Zhao.Molar Kinetics in Catalytic Hydrocracking of Asphaltenes[A]. Future Material Research and Industry Application（FMRIA 2019 Part 1）[C]. 2019

97、Zheng Di,Shi Yongjie,Wang Yuan,Zhao Xiaojun,Pan Lun,Lu Feng.Effects of Curvature on Material Removal in NC Polishing of Aspheric Part[A]. Materials Science and Engineering Technology（ISMSET2019）[C]. 2019

98、Qiu Jun,Hu Chao,Yang Sainv.PMSM Hamiltonian Energy Shaping Control with Parameters Self-tuning PID Control[A]. 第三十四届中国控制会议论文集（C卷）[C]. 2019

99、Haina Sun.Total Labelling of the Tree with Maximum Degree[A]. Future Information Engineering（ICFIE 2019 V8）[C]. 2019

100、Wang Yuan,Gangyi Jiang,Yigang Wang,Mei Yu,Feng Shao,Zongju Peng.Grid-Based Corner Detection of the Microscopic Camera Calibration[A]. Advanced Measurement and Test（AMT 2019 Part 2）[C]. 2019

101、HU Chao,FENG Zhongqing,REN Yupeng,CHEN Yueyue,LIN Haixiang,WANG Kai,XU Xiaodong,BAO Jianmeng.An Efficient Magnetic Localization System For Indoor Planar Mobile Robot[A]. 第三十四届中国控制会议论文集（C卷）[C]. 2019

102、Zhi-wei Yu,Guo-hong Zhou,Bin Wang.Analysis on the Starting Point and Path of Informatization in the Underdeveloped Rural Areas:A Survey of 52 Undeveloped Rural Villages of Ningbo[A]. Advances in Information Technology and Education（CSE 2019 CCIS 202）[C]. 2019

103、Haina Sun.Trees with 3,4 Are Not in Maximum Degree Distance[A]. 2019 International Conference on Machine Intelligence（ICMI 2019 V3）[C]. 2019

104、Shengjian Zhang,Yingxian Zhao.Molar Kinetics in Catalytic Hydrocracking of Asphaltenes[A]. Proceedings of 2019 International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Neural Computing（FSNC 2019 V3）[C]. 2019

105、Chi Zhang,Guangzhou Zhao,F.P.M.Dullens.Adaptive Control of Vertical Stage of A Robot Arm for Wafer Handling[A]. Manufacturing Systems and Industry Application（ICMEAT 2019 MSIA）[C]. 2019

106、C.Zhang,G.Zhao,Y.Xiao,X.Yang.Decoupling Robust Control of Three-Link Direct Drive Robot Arm[A]. Manufacturing Science and Materials Engineering（ICMSME 2019 Part 1）[C]. 2019

107、Yu Zhiwei,Ji Zhongyuan.Study on Security Management-oriented Business Process Model[A]. Manufacturing Systems and Industry Application（ICMEAT 2019 MSIA）[C]. 2019

108、Libing Shu.Study on Overall Performance Appraisal of Supply Chain Based on Cooperative View[A]. Applied Economics, Business and Development（ISAEBD 2019 CCIS 208）[C]. 2019

109、Libing Shu,Rong Chen.Study on Behavioral Motivations of Chinese Private Enterprises' Social Responsibility under Perspective of Needs Satisfaction[A]. Applied Economics, Business and Development（ISAEBD 2019 CCIS 208）[C]. 2019

110、Yupeng Dong.On the Research of the Pledge of Digital Copyright[A]. Proceedings of 2019 4th IEEE International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology（ICCSIT 2019） VOL03[C]. 2019

111、Xingsen Li,Zhongbiao Xiang.CLOUD COMPUTING FOR EXTENSION INNOVATION[A]. Proceedings of 2019 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cloud Computing and Intelligence Systems[C]. 2019

112、Wang Guo Feng.Politeness Phenomena in Ancient China:An Analysis of A Dream of Red Mansions[A]. Proceedings of the First Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language,Literature and Translation[C]. 2019

113、Lu Ying.A Genre-Based Comparison between Chinese and American Company Profiles:A Cultural Exploration[A]. Proceedings of the First Northeast Asia International Symposium on Language,Literature and Translation[C]. 2019

篇12：继电保护外文英语参考文献

继电保护外文英语参考文献

文章类型： 参考文献 参考文献格式本文是一篇参考文献，对于很多研究继电保护这一专业的学生们来说，参考文献的选择尤其重要，参考文献主要考察的就是同学们对这行业的研究水平以及掌握的知识范围，现为方便广大此专业的`学生们，今统计整理了部分最新的继电保护的英语参考文献，希望可以帮助到大家。 [1]Abhishek Khanna. Analysis of High Impedance Protection Considering CT-Transients and Air Gapped CTs with Setting Recommendations and a New Fast Acting Algorithm for High Impedance Numerical Relays[J]. International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems,,12（1）：. [2]Mojtaba Khederzadeh. Mechanical Protection of Induction Motors by Off-the-Shelf Electrical Protective Relays[J]. International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems,2011,12（2）：. [3]El Sayed M. Tag Eldin. A Novel Approach for Classifying Transient Phenomena in Power Transformers[J]. International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems,2011,1（2）：. [4]J. Havelka,R. Malari?,K. Frlan. Staged-Fault Testing of Distance Protection Relay Settings[J]. Measurement Science Review,,12（3）：. [5]Xiong Haijun,Zhang Qi. 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篇13：模具毕业设计外文翻译

模具毕业设计外文翻译

冲压模具概述

冲压模具--在冷冲压加工中，将材料（金属或非金属）加工成零件（或半成品）的一种特殊工艺装备，称为冷冲压模具（俗称冷冲模）。冲压--是在室温下，利用安装在压力机上的模具对材料施加压力，使其产生分离或塑性变形，从而获得所需零件的一种压力加工方法。

冲压模具的形式很多，一般可按以下几个主要特征分类：

1．根据工艺性质分类

（1）冲裁模 沿封闭或敞开的轮廓线使材料产生分离的模具。如落料模、冲孔模、切断模、切口模、切边模、剖切模等。

（2）弯曲模 使板料毛坯或其他坯料沿着直线（弯曲线）产生弯曲变形，从而获得一定角度和形状的工件的模具。

（3）拉深模 是把板料毛坯制成开口空心件，或使空心件进一步改变形状和尺寸的模具。

（4）成形模 是将毛坯或半成品工件按图凸、凹模的形状直接复制成形，而材料本身仅产生局部塑性变形的模具。如胀形模、缩口模、扩口模、起伏成形模、翻边模、整形模等。

2．根据工序组合程度分类

（1）单工序模 在压力机的一次行程中，只完成一道冲压工序的模具。

（2）复合模 只有一个工位，在压力机的一次行程中，在同一工位上同时完成两道或两道以上冲压工序的模具。

（3）级进模（也称连续模） 在毛坯的送进方向上，具有两个或更多的工位，在压力机的一次行程中，在不同的工位上逐次完成两道或两道以上冲压工序的模具。

冲冷冲模全称为冷冲压模具。

冷冲压模具是一种应用于模具行业冷冲压模具及其配件所需高性能结构陶瓷材料的制备方法，高性能陶瓷模具及其配件材料由氧化锆、氧化钇粉中加铝、镨元素构成，制备工艺是将氧化锆溶液、氧化钇溶液、氧化镨溶液、氧化铝溶液按一定比例混合配成母液，滴入碳酸氢铵，采用共沉淀方法合成模具及其配件陶瓷材料所需的原材料，反应生成的沉淀经滤水、干燥，煅烧得到高性能陶瓷模具及其配件材料超微粉，再经过成型、烧结、精加工，便得到高性能陶瓷模具及其配件材料。本发明的优点是本发明制成的冷冲压模具及其配件使用寿命长，在冲压过程中未出现模具及其配件与冲压件产生粘结现象，冲压件表面光滑、无毛刺，完全可以替代传统高速钢、钨钢材料。

冷冲模具主要零件

冷冲模具是冲压加工的主要工艺装备，冲压制件就是靠上、下模具的相对运动来完成的。加工时由于上、下模具之间不断地分合，如果操作工人的手指不断进入或停留在模具闭合区，便会对其人身安全带来严重威胁。

（一）模具的主要零件、作用及安全要求

1．工作零件凸凹模是直接使坯料成形的工作零件，因此，它是模具上的关键零件。凸凹模不但精密而且复杂，它应满足如下要求：

（1）应有足够的强度，不能在冲压过程中断裂或破坏．

（2）对其材料及热处理应有适当要求，防止硬度太高而脆裂。

2．定位零件定位零件是确定坯件安装位置的零件，有定位销（板）、挡料销（板）、导正销、导料板、定距侧刀、侧压器等。设计定位零件时应考虑操作方便，不应有过定位，位置要便于观察，最好采用前推定位、外廓定位和导正销定位等。

3．压料、卸料及出料零件压料零件有压边圈、压料板等。

压边圈可对拉延坯料加压边力，从而防止坯料在切向压力的作用下拱起而形成皱褶。压料板的作用是防止坯料移动和弹跳。顶出器、卸料板的作用是便于出件和清理废料。它们由弹簧、橡胶和设备上的气垫推杆支撑，可上下运动，顶出件设计时应具有足够的顶出力，运动要有限位。卸料板应尽量缩小闭合区域或在操作位置上铣出空手槽。暴露的卸料板的四周应设有防护板，防止手指伸入或异物进入，外露表面棱角应倒钝。

4．导向零件导柱和导套是应用最广泛的一种导向零件。其作用是保证凸凹模在冲压工作时有精确的配合间隙。因此，导柱、导套的间隙应小于冲裁间隙。导柱设在下模座，要保证在冲程下死点时，导柱的上端面在上模板顶面以上最少5至10毫米。导柱应安排在远离模块和压料板的部位，使操作者的手臂不用越过导柱送取料。

5．支承及夹持零件它包括上下模板、模柄、凸凹模固定板、垫板、限位器等。

上下模板是冷冲模具的基础零件，其他各种零件都分别安装固定在上面。模板的平面尺寸，尤其是前后方向应与制件相适应，过大或过小均不利于操作。

有些模具（落料、冲孔类模具）为了出件方便，需在模架下设垫板。这时垫板最好与模板之间用螺钉连接在一起，两垫板的厚度应绝对相等。垫板的间距以能出件为准，不要太大，以免模板断裂。

6．紧固零件它包括螺钉、螺母、弹簧、柱销、垫圈等，一般都采用标准件。冷冲模具的标准件用量较多，设计选用时应保证紧固和弹性顶出的需要，避免紧固件暴露在表面操作位置上，防止碰伤人手和妨碍操作。

冷冲模具的发展

改革开放以来，随着国民经济的高速发展，市场对冷冲模具的需求量不断增长。近年来，冷冲模具工业一直以15%左右的增长速度快速发展，冷冲模具工业企业的所有制成分也发生了巨大变化，除了国有专业模具厂外，集体、合资、独资和私营也得到了快速发展。 随着与国际接轨的脚步不断加快，市场竞争的日益加剧，人们已经越来越认识到产品质量、成本和新产品的开发能力的重要性。而冷冲模具制造是整个链条中最基础的要素之一，冷冲模具制造技术现已成为衡量一个国家制造业水平高低的重要标志，并在很大程度上决定企业的生存空间。

近年许多冷冲模具企业加大了用于技术进步的投资力度，将技术进步视为企业发展的重要动力。一些国内模具企业已普及了二维CAD，并陆续开始使用UG、Pro/Engineer、I-DEAS、Euclid-IS等国际通用软件，个别厂家还引进了Moldflow、C-Flow、DYNAFORM、

Optris和MAGMASOFT等CAE软件，并成功应用于冲压模的设计中。

以汽车覆盖件模具为代表的大型冲压模具的制造技术已取得很大进步，东风汽车公司模具厂、一汽模具中心等模具厂家已能生产部分轿车覆盖件模具。此外，许多研究机构和大专院校开展模具技术的研究和开发。经过多年的努力，在模具CAD/CAE/CAM技术方面取得了显著进步；在提高模具质量和缩短模具设计制造周期等方面做出了贡献。

虽然中国冷冲模具工业在过去十多年中取得了令人瞩目的发展，但许多方面与工业发达国家相比仍有较大的差距。例如，精密加工设备在冷冲模具加工设备中的比重比较低；CAD/CAE/CAM技术的普及率不高；许多先进的模具技术应用不够广泛等等，致使相当一部分大型、精密、复杂和长寿命冷冲模具依赖进口。

随着科学技术的不断进步,现代工业产品的生产日益复杂与多样化,产品性能和质量也在不断提高,因而对冷冲压技术提出了更高的要求.为了使冷冲压技术能适应各工业部门的需要,冷冲压技术自身也在不断革新和发展.冷冲压技术的发展思路就是尽可能地完善和扩充冷冲压工艺的优点,克服其缺点.在冷冲压技术的发展过程中,应注意以下几方面：

(1)冷冲压技术的发展过程中应正确地确定工艺参数及冷冲模具工作部分的形状与尺寸,提高冲压件的质量、缩短新产品试制周期,应在加强冲压成形理论研究的基础上,使冲压成形理论达到能对生产实际起指导作用,逐步建立起一套密切结合生产实际的先进的工艺分析计算方法.国外已开始采用弹塑性有限元法对汽车覆盖零件的成形过程进行应力应变分析和计算机模拟,以预测某一工艺方案对零件成形的可能性和可能出现的问题。

(2)加快产品更新换代,克服模具设计周期长的缺点.应大力开展模具计算机辅助设计和制造(CAD/CAM)技术的研究.在我国,目前要特别注意加强多工位级进模CAD/CAM技术的研究。

(3)满足大量生产需要以及减轻劳动强度.应加强冷冲压生产的机械化和自动化研究,使一般中、小件能在高速压力机上采用多工位级进模生产,达到生产高度自动化,进一步提高冲压的生产率。

(4)扩大冷冲压生产的运用范围.使冷冲压既适合大量生产,也适合小批量生产;既能生产一般精度的产品,也能生产精密零件.应注意开发如精密冲裁(特别是厚料精冲)、高能成形、软模成形、施压和超塑性加工等新成形工艺,还要推广简易模(软模和低熔点合金模)、通用组合模、数控冲床等设备的运用。

此外,对冲压板料性能的改进,模具新材料、模具新加工方法的'开发也应进一步加强。

冷冲模具使用寿命的影响及对策

冷冲模具的使用寿命是以冲制出的工件数量来计算的。影响冷冲模寿命的因素很多。主要有模具结构设计、制造模具所用凸模和凹模的材料、模具的热处理质量与表面强化、冲模零件的制造精度和冷冲压材料的选取。除此之外，还有冲模的安装、调整、使用以及维修等。

1．模具设计对寿命的影响

(1)排样设计的影响排样方法与搭边值对模具寿命的影响很大，过小的搭边值，往往是造成模具急剧磨损和凸、凹模啃伤的重要原因。从节约材料出发，搭边值愈小愈好，但

搭边值小于一定数值后，对模具寿命和剪切表面质量不利。在冲裁中有可能被拉人模具问隙中，使零件产生毛刺，甚至损坏模具刃口，降低模具寿命。因此，在考虑提高材料利用率的同时，必须根据零件产量、质量和寿命，确定排样方法和搭边值。

(2)凹模结构的影响对容易产生应力集中而开裂的凹模结构，可以采用组合结构或镶拼结构，以及预应力结构，从而提高模具使用寿命。

(3)间隙的影响当间隙过小时，压缩挤压利害，摩擦力增大，磨损增大，侧面的磨损加剧，冲裁后卸料和推件时，材料与凸、凹模之间的摩擦还将造成刃口侧面的磨损比端面的磨大大，同时也容易造成凸、凹模温度很高，把金属碎屑吸附在刃口侧面，形成金属瘤，使凸、凹模出现崩刃或胀裂现象。因此，过小的间隙对模具寿命极为不利。间隙太大，会增加凸模与凹模端面边缘的集中应力，致使压应力急剧增加，于是刃口边很快屈服变形而失去棱角。因此又增加了冲裁力，进而使刃口边更快磨损，降低模具寿命。但为了减小凸、凹模的磨损，延长模具使用寿命，在保证冲裁件质量的前提下，设计时适当采用较大间隙是十分必要的。

(4)模具导向结构对寿命的影响可靠的导向对于减小工作零件的磨损，避免凸、凹模啃伤是非常有效的。特别对无问隙或小问隙冲裁模、复合模和多工位级进模更为重要。为提高模具寿命，必须根据工序和零件精度要求，正确选择导向形式和导向精度，所选择导向精度应高于凸、凹模的配合精度。

(5)冷冲压材料选取的影响冷冲压材料应满足制件的设计要求和冲压工艺要求，否则容易损伤模具，降低模具使用寿命。冷冲压材料表面质量不好，冲压时制件易破裂，也易擦伤模具。冷冲压材料塑性不好，变形量小，冲压时制件易破裂，也易擦伤模具。另外，材料的厚度公差应符合国家标准。因为一副冲模适用于一定材料的厚度，成形、弯曲、翻边、引伸模具的凸、凹模结构间隙是直接根据材料厚度来确定的。所以材料厚度不均匀，会导致废品产生和模具损坏。

2．模具材料对模具寿命的影响

模具材料对模具寿命的影响是模具材料性质、化学成分、组织结构、硬度和冶金质量等的综合反映。其中，材料性质和热处理质量影响最为明显。模具材料性质对模具寿命的影响是很大的。如将同一种工件，使用不同的模具材料做弯曲试验，试验结果：用9Mn2V材料，其寿命为5万次；用Crl2MoV渗氮，其寿命可达40万次。因此，在选用材料时，应根据制件的批量大小，合理选用模具材料。模具工作零件的硬度对模具寿命的影响也很大。但并不是硬度愈高、模具寿命愈长。这是因为硬度与强度、韧性及耐磨性等有密切的关系。有的冲模要求硬度高，寿命长。如采用T10钢制造冲模，硬度为54～58HRC，只冲几千次，制件毛刺就很大。如果将硬度提高到60～64HRC，则刃磨寿命可达2～3万次。但如果继续提高硬度，则会出现早期断裂。有的冲模硬度不宜过高，如采用Crl2MoV制造凹模硬度为58～62HRC时，一般寿命为2―3万件，失效形式是崩刃和开裂以及如果将硬度降到54～58HRC，寿命提高到5～6万件，但硬度降低到50～53HRC会出现凹模刃口易磨钝现象。由此可见，模具硬度必须根据材料性质和失效形式而定。应使硬度、强度、韧性及耐磨性、耐疲劳强度等达到特定冲压工序所需要的最佳配合。

3．模具的热处理质量与表面强化对寿命的影响

模具的热处理质量对模具的性质与使用寿命影响很大。实践证明，模具工作零件的淬火变形与开裂，使用过程中早期断裂，虽然与材料的冶金质量、锻造质量、模具结构及加工有关，但与模具的热处理关系更大。根据模具失效原因的分析统计，热处理不当引起的失效占50％ 以上。实践证明，高级的模具材料必须配以正确的热处理工艺，才能真正发挥材料的潜力。模具工作零件表面强化处理的目的，是获得外硬内韧的效果，从而得到硬度、耐磨性、韧性、耐疲劳强度的良好配合。模具表面强化处理方法很多，表面处理的新技术工艺发展很快。除氮碳共渗和离子氮化、渗硼、渗铌、渗钒、表面镀硬铬和电火花强化外，化学气相沉积(CVD)和物理气相沉积(PVD)已逐步采用。经CVD和PVD处理后，模具表面覆盖一层超硬物质，如TiC、TiN等。硬度极高、耐磨性、耐蚀性、抗黏合性很好，可提高模具寿命几倍到几十倍。

4．冲模零件的制造精度对模具寿命的影响

冲模制造的精度与使用寿命关系很大，特别是模具表面粗糙度对模具影响很大。如用Crl2MoV钢制造落料模，如果表面粗糙度值R =1．6 m时，其寿命为3万件左右。如经精抛光，表面粗糙度值R =0．4 m，寿命可提高到4―5万件。因此，对模具工作零件表面，一般都要经过磨削、研磨、抛光等精加工和精细加工。

5．其他方面对模具寿命的影响

(1)压力机的精度不高，也易使冲模损坏。

(2)冲模在压力机上安装的正确与否及操作者的技术水平高低，对模具寿命也有很大影响。

(3)冲模的保管和维护好坏，以及使用润滑剂的情况，也影响模具使用寿命。

6．结语

在实际生产中，对于薄板冲模使用，很少出现非正常磨损的情况。但对于厚板冲模时则发现易出现非正常磨损，我们总是针对出现的问题进行研究总结。因为一副冷冲模，从设计、加工制造、装配、调试到安装、使用，都耗费了众多工时，同时冲模的凸、凹模使用的材料，大都是优质合金钢。因此，冲模的成本都是比较高的。所以在生产中了解影响冲模寿命的因素及采取相应的对策来指导生产，具有重大的现实意义。

Die Life of cold stamping die and mprovements

Overview of stamping die

Stamping Die - Stamping in the cold, the material (metal or non-metallic) processing into parts (or half) of a special technical equipment, called cold stamping die (commonly known as Die). Press - is at room temperature, using the die installed in the press to put pressure on the material to produce a separation or plastic deformation, and thus to obtain the necessary parts of a pressure processing method.

Stamping die in the form of many, the general categories according to the following main features:

1. According to the technical nature of

(1) Die along the closed or open contour the material are derived from mold. If blanking die, punch die, cut off the mold, cut mode, cutting mode, split mode, etc..

(2) bending mode to blank or blank sheet along a straight line (curved line) to bend, deform, and thus obtain a certain angle and shape of the workpiece in the mold.

(3) The drawing die is made of the blank sheet opening hollow, or hollow pieces of further changes to the shape and size of the mold.

(4) Die rough or semi-finished workpiece is convex according to plan, direct copy the shape of the die shape, the material itself, generate only local plastic deformation of the mold. Such as the bulging mode, reducing the die, expansion die, forming die rolling, flanging mold, plastic mold.

2. According to the degree classification process combination

(1) single process model in a press tour, just completed a die stamping process.

(2) composite model is only one station, in a press tour, at the same station at the same time to complete more than two or two die stamping process.

(3) Progressive Die (also known as the modulus of continuity) in the feeding direction, rough, with two or more of the station, at the press of a visit, work in different places on the completion of two or two successive Road over stamping die process.

Chong called cold stamping die Die-wide.

Cold stamping die is used in cold stamping die mold industry, and accessories required for high-performance structural ceramic materials, preparation methods, high-performance ceramic materials, molds and accessories from the zirconium oxide and yttrium aluminum powder increases, Pr element composition, Preparation is the solution of zirconia, yttria solution, praseodymium oxide solution, according to a certain percentage of alumina solution when mixed liquor, ammonium bicarbonate

infusion, by co-precipitation synthesis of ceramic materials, molds and accessories needed for raw materials, reaction precipitate generated by the treatment, drying, calcining and accessories by high performance ceramic mold material superfine powder, and then after forming, sintering, finishing, they will have high-performance ceramic materials, molds and accessories. Advantages of this invention is the invention made of cold stamping dies and parts and long service life, the process does not appear in the press and its parts and stamping die bond generated the phenomenon of stamping surface is smooth, no glitches, can replace traditional high-speed steel, tungsten steel.

Die with the main parts

Die stamping tools is the main process equipment, stamping rely on the relative movement under the mold completed. Processing time because the upper and lower mold between the constant division and, if continued operation of the fingers of workers to enter or remain in the mold closed, there will certainly pose a serious threat to their personal safety.

(A) of the mold main parts, function and safety requirements

1. Working parts is a direct punch to blank forming the working parts, therefore, it is the key to mold parts. Punch not only sophisticated and complex, it should meet the following requirements:

(1) be of sufficient strength, can not be broken or destroyed during stamping.

(2) should be appropriate to its material and heat treatment requirements, to prevent too high hardness and brittle fracture.

2. Positioning parts positioning part is to determine the location of the parts installed blank, there are pins (board), gauge pin (plate), lead is sold, guide plate, knife set from the side, side pressure etc.. Design should be considered when positioning parts easy to operate and should not have had orientation, location to facilitate observation, preferably in the forward position, contouring to correct the pin location and positioning.

3. Binder, unloading and discharging parts binder components are blank holder, binder board.

Blank holder pressure can drawing blank holder force, thereby preventing billets under the action of the tangential pressure arch formed folds. The role of pressure plate to prevent movement and bounce blank. Top of the device, discharge board's role is to facilitate the pieces and clean up waste. Them by the spring, rubber and equipment, putting on the air-cushion support, can move up and down, knocking out pieces of the design should have enough top output, movement to the limited spaces. Stripper plate area should be minimized or closed position in the operating

groove milling out empty-handed. Exposure of the stripper plate should have protection around the plate, to prevent finger inserted into or foreign objects inside, exposed surface edges should be blunt down.

4. Guide parts and guide sleeve guide pin is the most widely used part of a guide. Its role is to ensure punch the punching clearance when accurate match. Therefore, the guide posts, guide cover the gap should be less than the blanking clearance. Guide Post located next mold base, to ensure that the stroke bottom dead center, the lead column in the template on the face over the top for at least 5 to 10 mm. Guide columns should be arranged far away from the module and the pressure plate in the area, so the operator's arms do not get to take over the lead column material.

5. Supporting and clamping the upper and lower parts which includes templates, die handle, fixed plate punch, plate, stopper, etc..

Up and down the template is the basis of the cold die parts, other parts are respectively fixed at the top. Template plane size, especially around the direction to be compatible with the workpiece, too large or too small are not conducive to action.

Some molds (blanking, punching type mold) to the pieces of convenience, be set up under the mold plate. At this time the best and the template plate connected between the screw, the two plate thickness should be absolutely equal. Plate spacing out the pieces to be able to prevail, not too much, so as not to break the template.

6. Fastening parts which includes screws, nuts, springs, pins, washers, etc., are generally used standard parts. Die more with the amount of standard parts, design choice and flexibility should be tightened to ensure the top out of the need to avoid exposure to the surface fastener operating position, the staff and impede operation to prevent bumps.

Die with the development of

Since reform and opening, with the rapid development of the national economy, the market demand with the growing Die. In recent years, Die with the industry has been around 15% growth rate of the rapid development of industrial enterprises with ownership Die components also changed dramatically, in addition to the professional mold factory outside of state-owned, collective, joint ventures, wholly-owned and private has been a rapid development.

As with the accelerating pace of international integration, the increasing competition in the market, it has been increasingly recognized product quality, cost, and new product development capacities. The cold die manufacturing is the most basic elements of the chain, one of the cold die manufacturing technology

to measure a country's manufacturing sector has become an important symbol of the level, and largely determine the viability of enterprises.

Die with enterprises to increase in recent years many technological advances for investment, technological progress will be seen as an important driving force for enterprise development. Some domestic enterprises have popularized the two-dimensional mold CAD, and gradually began to use UG, Pro / Engineer, I-DEAS, Euclid-IS and other international common software, individual manufacturers have also introduced Moldflow, C-Flow, DYNAFORM, Optris and MAGMASOFT etc. CAE software, and successfully applied in stamping die design.

A car cover mold as the representative of a large stamping die manufacturing technology has made great progress, Dongfeng Motor Corporation mold factory, mold manufacturers such as FAW mold center has been able to produce some car cover mold. In addition, many research institutions and universities to carry out technology research and development of mold. After years of effort, in the mold CAD / CAE / CAM technology has made remarkable progress; in improving quality and reducing mold die design and manufacturing cycle, and so contributed.

Although China Die with the industry over the past decade has made remarkable development, but in many ways compared with the industrialized countries there is still a large gap. For example, the precision machining equipment, processing equipment in Die with the relatively low proportion; CAD / CAE / CAM technology penetration is not high; many advanced mold technology not widely so, resulting in a considerable number of large, sophisticated, complex and long Die life with dependence on imports.

With the continuous progress of science and technology, modern industrial production of increasingly complex and diverse, product performance and quality is ever increasing, thus the cold stamping technology put forward higher requirements. In order to adapt to the cold stamping technology industry needs, cold stamping technology itself also in innovation and development. cold stamping technology idea is to improve and expand as much as possible the advantages of the cold stamping process, to overcome its shortcomings. in the cold stamping technology development, should note the following aspects:

(1) cold stamping technology process parameters should be properly identified and Die with the work of some of the shape and size, to improve the quality of stamping parts and shorten the new product production cycle should be in strengthening the metal forming the basis of theoretical studies, to metal forming theory to practice can produce a direction, and gradually establish a close connection with the actual production of the advanced process of calculation. abroad have begun to use plastic finite element method, automobile parts forming process of the stress and strain

analysis and computer simulation to predict the forming part of a process plan on the possibilities and potential problems.

(2) to accelerate product replacement, mold design to overcome the shortcomings of a long cycle. Should vigorously carry out computer-aided design and manufacture of molds (CAD / CAM) Research. In my country, paying particular attention to strengthening the multi-position progressive die CAD / CAM Technology.

(3) to meet the needs of mass production, and reduce labor intensity. Should strengthen cold stamping of mechanized and automated, so that the average, small pieces of high-speed presses in a multi-position progressive die production, production reached a high degree of automation to further improve stamping productivity.

(4) expand the scope of application of cold stamping production. So cold pressing both suitable for mass production, but also for small batch production; both the general accuracy of product production, but also can produce precision parts. Should pay attention to development such as fine blanking (especially thick material fine blanking), forming high-energy, soft mold forming, pressure and processing new superplastic forming process, but also promote the easy mode (soft mode and the low melting point alloy mold), Universal Hybrid model, the use of CNC punch press and other equipment.

In addition, the performance improvement of sheet metal stamping, mold new material, die development of new processing methods should be further strengthened.

Die with life and Countermeasures

Die with the life of the workpiece by punching out the number of terms. Many factors affect the life Die. There are die structure design, manufacture molds used in the punch and die materials, die quality and surface hardening heat treatment, precision die manufacturing parts and cold stamping materials selection. In addition, there are die installation, adjustment, use and maintenance.

1. Die Design on Life

(1) Layout design of layout methods and take the boundary value a great impact on the die life, too small to take the boundary value, often causing rapid wear and convex mold, die bite wounds on the. Starting from material savings, take the boundary value smaller the better, but take the edge is less than some value, the cut surface of the mold and the quality of life adversely. There will be left behind in the blanking die Q-gap were to produce spare parts glitch, or even damage the die edge, reduce die life. Therefore, consider increasing the material utilization of the same time, parts must yield, quality and life expectancy to determine the layout methods and take the boundary.

(2) die structure prone to stress concentration on the cracking of the die structure, composite structure can be used or mosaic structure, and prestressed structure to enhance the mold life.

(3) the impact of clearance when the gap is too small, compressed extrusion of interest, increased friction, increased wear, the wear side of aggravated discharge and push pieces after blanking time, materials and convex, the friction between die will cause wear and tear than the end edge on the side of the grinding much, but also easily lead to convex, concave mold temperature is high, the adsorption of metal debris in the side edge to form a metal tumor, so that male and female die chipping or expansion occurs crack phenomenon. Therefore, the gap is too small to Die Life very bad. Gap is too large will increase the punch and the die face the edge of the concentration of stress, resulting in a sharp increase in stress, so blade edge quickly lose angular yield deformation. Therefore, addition of blanking force, thereby enabling faster edge edge wear, reduce die life. But in order to reduce the male and female die wear, extending mold life, while ensuring quality of stamping pieces under the premise that larger space designed properly it is necessary.

(4) Die-oriented structure of the life of a reliable guide for the working parts reduce wear, prevent male and female die bite wound is very effective. In particular, non-small-Q gap Q gap or Die, compound die and multi-position progressive die even more important. To improve the die life, must be based on processes and the demand of precision, the correct choice-oriented form and orientation accuracy, the choice should be higher than the accuracy-oriented convex, concave mold with precision.

(5) the impact of cold stamping materials, cold stamping materials selected should meet the design requirements of workpieces and stamping process requirements, or easy to mold damage and reduce mold life. Poor surface quality of cold stamping, punching, cracking when the workpiece is also easy to scratch mold. Bad cold stamping plastic materials, deformation is small, easy to press when the workpiece rupture, but also easy to scratch mold. In addition, the material thickness tolerances shall comply with national standards. Die because of a certain thickness of material suitable for forming, bending, flanging, drawing die of the male and female die structure gap is directly determined by the thickness of the material. Therefore, uneven thickness, will result in waste generation and mold damage.

2. Die Die Life of

Die Die Life of a mold material properties, chemical composition, structure, hardness and comprehensive reflection of metallurgical quality. Among them, the material properties and heat treatment affect the quality of the most obvious.

Mold material properties on the impact of die life is great. If the same workpiece, using a different mold material of the bending test, the test results: The 9Mn2V material, the life of 5 million; with Crl2MoV nitriding, the life of up to 40 million. Therefore, the choice of materials, the batch size should be based on workpiece, rational use of mold materials. The hardness of the die parts to Die Life a great impact. But not the higher hardness, longer die life. This is because the hardness and strength, toughness and abrasion resistance are closely related. Some die demands of high hardness, long life. Such as the use of T10 steel dies, hardness 54 ~ 58HRC, only washed thousands of times a burr on the workpiece great. If the hardness to 60 ~ 64HRC, the grinding life of up to 2 to 3 million. However, if continue to improve hardness, fracture occurs earlier. Some die hardness should not be too high, as the die manufacturing using Crl2MoV 58 ~ 62HRC hardness, the general life of 2-3 million, invalid form of chipping and cracking, and if the hardness down to 54 ~ 58HRC, life expectancy increased to 5 ~ 60 000, but decreased to 50 ~ 53HRC hardness appears easy to blunt the die edge phenomenon. Thus, mold hardness must be based on material properties and failure modes may be. Should enable the hardness, strength, toughness and wear resistance, resistance to fatigue strength needed to achieve a particular stamping process the best match.

3. The surface of the mold heat treatment to strengthen the quality and impact on life

Mold heat treatment the nature and quality of life of the mold a great impact. Practice shows that the die parts of the quenching distortion and cracking, early fracture during use, while the metallurgical and materials quality, forging quality, mold structure and process related, but related more to die of heat treatment. According to statistical analysis of failure causes of mold, heat treatment failure due to improper accounting for more than 50%. Practice shows that the mold material must be accompanied by high heat treatment process properly, can really play a material's potential. Parts surface hardening mold work purpose is to obtain the effect of external hard tough inside, so be hardness, wear resistance, toughness, good resistance to fatigue with. Many ways to die surface hardening, surface treatment technology of new technologies developed rapidly. In addition to Nitrocarburizing and ion nitride, boride, seepage niobium, vanadium permeability, hard chrome plated and spark strengthening, the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD) has been gradually adopted. By CVD and PVD treatment, the mold surface covered with super-hard material, such as TiC, TiN, etc.. High hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, adhesion is very good, can improve the die life several times to several times.

4. Manufacturing precision of the die parts of die life

Precision die manufacturing and life in it in particular, mold surface roughness on the mold a great impact. If using Crl2MoV steel blanking die, if the surface roughness value R = 1.6 m, its life span is about 30,000. Such as polished by the precision, surface roughness value R = 0.4 m, life can be increased to 4-5 million. Therefore, the working parts of the mold surface, the general must go through grinding, grinding, polishing and other finishing and fine processing.

5. Other aspects of the impact of die life

(1) Press the accuracy is not high, but also easy to make die damage.

(2) die in the press or not installed properly and the operator's technical level, on the tool life is also greatly affected.

(3) dies in the custody and maintenance of good and bad, and the use of lubricant condition also affects mold life.

6. Conclusion

In actual production, sheet metal dies for use, rare case of non-normal wear and tear. But when the die plate was found prone to irregular wear, we always study for the problems summarized. Because of a cold die, from the design, manufacture, assembly, commissioning and installation and use, all spent many hours, while the convex die, die material used, mostly high-quality alloy steel. Therefore, the die cost is relatively high. Therefore, in the production of understanding the factors that affect the die life and take the appropriate measures to guide the production of great practical significance.

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